open access
메뉴
open access
메뉴
ISSN : 2092-738X
Flourishing in the Central Dry Zone of Burma during a period from the mid-eleventh to the late-thirteenth century A.D., the historical kingdom of Pagan was one of the major Buddhist centers in Southeast Asia. The significance of Pagan as an important pilgrimage site of the region, where numerous relics of the Buddha were enshrined, had been maintained until long after the fall of its civilization. It is evident that the artistic influences of Pagan, particularly in the architectural and decorative domains, had been transmitted to various other Buddhist civilizations in the area. This study provides a detailed analysis on the relationships between the mural tradition of Pagan and those of its neighboring civilizations in Thailand—of the Ayutthayā, Lānnā and Sukhothai schools —dating from after the Pagan Period in the fourteenth century to the sixteenth century. Surprisingly, as the analysis of this study has suggested, such relationships seemed to be trivial, more on a minor stylistic basis than on substantial ideological and iconographic grounds. They suggest that transmission of the complex idea and superb craftsmanship of the mural tradition would not have been maintained adequately at Pagan after its civilization, probably due to the lack of royal patronage. It would have been extremely difficult for foreign pilgrims who visited Pagan after its dynastic period to appreciate the surviving murals of this lost tradition in terms of their complex programs and associated symbolism. Also, there had been a new center of the Sinhalese Buddhism firmly established in the Martaban area of lower Burma since the mid-fourteenth century that outcompeted Pagan in terms of supplying the new Buddhist ideas and tradition. Its fame spread wide and far among the Buddhist communities of Southeast Asia. Later, these Buddhist communities also established direct contact with Sri Lanka. The Sukhothai murals and the Ayutthayā murals in the crypt of Wat Rātchaburana, dating from the fourteenth/fifteenth century, show obvious Sri Lankan influence in terms of artistic style and Buddhist iconography. They could be a product of these new religious movements, truly active in Southeast Asia during that time.
Āryaśūra. 2010. Jātakamālā or Garland of Birth Stories. J. S. Speyer, trans. Electronic edition by Ānandajoti Bhikkhu.
Ba Shin, Bohmu. 1962. The Lokahteikpan. Rangoon: Burma Historical Commission, Ministry of Union Culture.
Bandaranayake, Senake. 2006. The Rock and Wall Paintings of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Stamford Lake (Pvt) Ltd.
Bautze-Picron, Claudine. 2003. The Buddhist Murals of Pagan. Bangkok: Orchid Press.
Culla Buddhaghosa Thera. 1983. Sotattagī-mahānidāna. Banjob Bannaruji, trans. Bangkok: Wat Suthatthepvararam.
Devendra, D. T. 1956. An unusual hand position in Ceylon statuary. Artibus Asiae, 19(2): 126-136.
Geiger, Wilhelm, trans. 1912. The Mahāvaṃsa of the Great Chronicle of Ceylon. London: The Pali Text Society.
Griswold, Alexander B. 1967. Towards a History of Sukhodaya Art. Bangkok: The Fine Arts Department.
Hudson, Bob, Nyein Lwin and Win Maung (Tanpawady). 2001. The origin of Bagan: new dates and old inhabitants. Asian Perspectives, 40(1): 48-74.
Hudson, Bob. 2002. Digging for myths: archaeological excavations and surveys of the legendary nineteen founding villages of Pagan. Burma: Art and Archaeology. A. Green and T.R. Blurton, eds. 9-21. London: The British Museum Press.
Jayawickrama, N. A., trans. 1978. Jinakalamali: The Sheaf of Garlands of the Epochs of the Conqueror. London: Pali Text Society.
Jayawickrama, N. A., trans. 1990. The Story of Gotama Buddha (Jātaka-nidāna). Oxford: The Pali Text Society.
Jongjitngam, Surachai. 1998. The missing history of Lānnā murals at Wat Umong. Muang Boran Journal, 24(2): 67-90.
Krairiksh, Piriya. 1995. Prawattisat-sinlapa nai Prathet-Thai Chabab Khumue Naksuksa (History of arts in Thailand: a student’s handbook). Bangkok: Amarin Printing.
Klangphittaya. 1967. Phraratchaphongsawadan Krung-Kao Chabap Luangprasoetaksornniti (The Ayutthayā Chronicle, Luangprasoetaksornniti version). Khamhaikan Chao-Krung-kao, Khamhaikan Khunluang-Hawat lae Phraratchaphongsawadan Krung-Kao Chabap Luangprasoetaksornniti (Testimonies of the inhabitants of Ayutthayā and its former king, Khunluang-Hawat, and the Ayutthayā Chronicle of the Luangprasoetaksornniti version), 446. Bangkok: Klangphittaya.
Laohasom, Phanuphong. 1998. Chittrakamfaphanang Lanna (Lānnā murals). Bangkok: Muang Boran.
Leksukhum, Santi. 1995. Sinlapa Phak Nua (Arts from northern Thailand). Bangkok: Muang Boran.
Leksukhum, Santi. 2006. Sinlapa Sukhothai (The arts of Sukhothai). Bangkok: Muang Boran.
Leksukhum, Santi. 2007. Sinlapa Ayutthayā (The art of Ayutthayā). Bangkok: Muang Boran.
Leksukhum, Santi and Kamol Chayawatana. 1981. Chittrakam -faphanang Samai Ayutthaya (Mural paintings of the Ayutthaya Period). Bangkok: Charoenwit.
Luce, Gordon H. 1969. Old Burma – Early Pagan, Vol. 1. New York: J. J. Augustine. Luce Vols.2 Vol.3 ????
Luce, Gordon H. and Ba Shin. 1961. A Chieng Mai Mahathera visits Pagan (1393 A.D.). Artibus Asiae, 24 (3/4): 330-7.
Mahāmakutarājavidyālaya. 1982. Phra-sūtra Lae Atthakathā Plǣ (A Translation of the Suttas and their Commentaries), Vols. 7, 9, 13, 39, 40, 42, 55, 70, 73 and 75. Bangkok: Mahāmakutarājavidyālaya Press.
Pe Maung Tin and G. H. Luce, trans. 1960. The Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma. Rangoon: Rangoon University press.
Penth, Hans. 1981. A note on the history of Wat Umong Thera Jan. Prawat Wat Umong (The history of Wat Umong), sixth edition, 30-42. Chiang Mai: Phutthanicom.
Pichard, Pierre.1992. Inventory of Monuments at Pagan, Vol. 1. UNESCO,
Poolsuwan, Samerchai. 1996. Sanyalak Nai Ngan Chittrakam Thai Rawang Phutthasattawat Thi 19 Thung 24 (Symbolism in the Thai murals from the nineteenth to twenty fourth centuries BE). Bangkok: Thammasat University Press.
Poolsuwan, Samerchai. 2012. After enlightenment: scenes of the Buddha’s retreat in the thirteenth century murals at Pagan. Artibus Asiae, 72(2): 377-97.
Poolsuwan, Samerchai. 2014a. Buddha’s biography: its development in Pagan murals vs. the vernacular literature in the Theravādin Buddhist context of Southeast Asia. Forthcoming article in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.
Poolsuwan, Samerchai. 2014b. Buddhist murals of the unusual characteristics in temple number 36 at Sale and their cultural implications. Forthcoming article in the Journal of Burma Studies.
Prematilleke, L. 1966. The identity and significance of the standing figure at the Gal-vihāra, Polonnaruva, Ceylon. Artibus Asiae, 18(1): 61-66..
Ratanapaññā Thera. 1968. The Sheaf of Garlands of the Epochs of the Conquerer, Being a translation of Jinakālamālīpakaraṇaṁ. N. A, Jayawickrama. London: Pali text Society, Translation Series No. 36.
Saddhammaghosa Thera, 1985. Lokapaññatti. Bangkok: Department of Fine Arts.
Stadtner, Donald M. 2005. Ancient Pagan. Bangkok: River Books.
Strachan, Paul. 1989. Pagan: Art & Architecture of Old Budma. Arran: Kiscadale.
Than Tun. 1988a. History of Burma 1300-1400. Essays on the History and Buddhism of Burma, 103-16. Scotland: Kiscadale Publications.
Than Tun. 1988b. Mahākassapa and his tradition. Essays on the History and Buddhism of Burma, 85-100. Scotland: Kiscadale Publications.
Tun Nyein. 1899. Inscriptions of Pagan, Pinya and Ava. Rangoon: Superintendent, Government Printing.
Woodward, Hiram. W., Jr. 1975. Studies in the Art of Central Siam, 950-1350 A.D., Vol. 2. Ph.D. Dissertation. Yale University.