ISSN : 0023-3900
This paper provides an overview of the ways in which feminist activism has, since 2015, gained new momentum in South Korea in terms of its scope, reach, and range of agendas. Building on existing scholarly discussions of feminist movements and gender politics, I first situate the resurgence of feminism within the broader historical and socio-political context of Korean society, including the diversification of social movements generally in post-authoritarian Korea, women’s precarious status, and the rise of misogyny. I then discuss the main characteristics of feminist activism on digital media and their implications, in particular, the broad range of feminist subjects, the extension of sites for and methods of struggle, and the emergence and centering of gendered issues within digital environments. Lastly, I assess the limitations of the term “young young feminist” and the diverse politics and controversies associated with contemporary feminist activism, with a focus on the critiques of raetpem (self-identified ‘radical feminists’). The paper concludes with an argument for intersectional and transnational feminism and suggestions for future research into feminist activism.
Bae, Eun-Kyung. 2015. “Cheongnyeon sedae damnon-ui jendeohwa-reul wihan siron namseongseong gaenyeom-eul jungsim-euro” (Gendering ‘Young Generation’ Discourses: Focusing on the Concept of Masculinity). Jendeo-wa munhwa (Gender and Culture) 8.1: 7–41.
Bae, Gawon. 2021. “South Korea’s First Transgender Soldier Found Dead.” CNN. March 3. https://www.cnn.com/2021/03/03/asia/south-korea-transgendersoldier-death-intl-hnk/index.html.
Baer, Hester. 2016. “Redoing Feminism: Digital Activism, Body Politics, and Neoliberalism.” Feminist Media Studies 16.1: 17–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2015.1093070.
Banet-Weiser, Sarah. 2018. Empowered: Popular Feminism and Popular Misogyny. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Banet-Weiser, Sarah., and Kate M. Miltner. 2016. “#MasculinitySoFragile: Culture, Structure, and Networked Misogyny.” Feminist Media Studies 16.1: 171–174. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2016.1120490.
Castells, Manuel. 2012. Networks of Outrage and Hope: Social Movements in the Internet Age. Cambridge, UK: Polity.
Ching, Miriam, and Yoon Louie. 1995. “Minjung Feminism: Korean Women’s Movement for Gender and Class Liberation.” Women’s Studies International Forum 18.4: 417–430. https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-5395(95)80033-L.
Cho, Joo Hyun. 2019. “Nonjaeng jungin hanguk-ui yeoseong undong: Jeollyakjeok haengdongjang iron-gwa silcheon iron-ui gwanjeom-eseo” (The Contentiousness of Korean Women’s Movement: From the Perspectives of Strategic Action Fields Theory and Practice Theory). Gyeongje-wa sahoe (Economy and Society) 123: 110–154.
Choe, Sang-Hun. 2016. “Gender Colors Outrage Over Scandal Involving South Korea’s President.” New York Times. November 21. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/22/world/asia/south-korea-park-geun-hye-women.html.
Chun, Sun-Young. 2003. “Uri sahoe peminijeum damnon guseong-gwa geu teukjil:Bakgeunhye daetongnyeong huboron-gwa yeoseong chongni nonjaeng-eul jungsim-euro” (Discourse on Feminism in Korean Society: Focusing on the Controversy of a Female Candidate for the Presidency and a Female Prime Minister). Sahoe-wa iron (Society and Theory) 11: 87–124.
Dalbey, Alex. 2018. “TERF Wars: Why Trans-Exclusionary Radical Feminist Have No Place in Feminism?” Daily Dot. August 12. https://www.dailydot.com/irl/terf-meaning/(Updated Jan 27, 2021).
Drüeke, Ricarda, and Elke Zobl. 2016. “Online Feminist Protest against Sexism: The German-Language Hashtag #aufschrei.” Feminist Media Studies 16.1: 35–54. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2015.1093071.
Eagle, Ryan Bowles. 2015. “Loitering, Lingering, Hashtagging: Women Reclaiming Public Space via #BoardtheBus, #StopStreetHarassment, and the #EverydaySexism Project.” Feminist Media Studies 15.2: 350–353. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777. 2015.1008748.
Earl, Jennifer, and Katrina Kimport. 2011. Digitally Enabled Social Change: Activism in the Internet Age. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Garrett, R. Kelly. 2006. “Protest in an Information Society: A Review of Literature on Social Movements and New ICTs.” Information, Communication & Society 9.2: 202–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691180600630773.
Gill, Rosalind. 2016. “Post-Postfeminism?: New Feminist Visibilities in Postfeminist Times.” Feminist Media Studies 16.4: 610–630. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2016.1193293.
Go, Eunhae. 2019. “Websaiteu womadeu-ui ‘hyungja’ damnon bunseok: Guljeoldoen jagihyeomo-raneun seongong-e-ui dongnyeok” (Discourse Analysis on the ‘Honorary-Men’ Discourse of the Website Womad). Midieo, jendeo & munhwa (Media, Gender & Culture) 34.4: 53–97.
Han, Heejeong. 2018. “Saibeo seongpongnyeok-e matseo ssaun yeoseong-deul:Bulbeop chwalyeongmul-eul jungsim-euro” (Female Activities in the Fight against Cyber Sexual Violence in Korea: Focusing on Illegal Photographs and Videos). Midieo, jendeo & munhwa (Media, Gender & Culture) 33.3: 213–255.
Han, Ju Hui Judy, and Jennifer Jihye Chun. 2014. “Introduction: Gender and Politics in Contemporary Korea.” Journal of Korean Studies 19.2: 245–255. https://doi.org/10.1353/jks.2014.0024.
Han, Woo Ri. 2017. “‘Isaengmang’ ‘hel joseon’ yeonseong cheongnyeon-deul-ui peminiseuteu doegi” (‘This Life of Mine Has Failed’ ‘Hell Joseon’ Young Women Becoming Feminists). Yeo/seong iron (Journal of Feminist Theories and Practices) 37: 58–78.
Hong, Namhee. 2018. “Dijiteol seongpongnyeok-ui ‘bulbeophwa’ gwajeong-e daehan yeongu” (A Study on the ‘Criminalization’ Process of Digital Sexual Violence). Midieo, jendeo & munhwa (Media, Gender & Culture) 33.2: 203–246.
Hwang, JungMee. 2006. “Hanguk yeoseong undong-ui uije-wa seongchalseong:Chai-ui sotong-eul wihan jeonmang” (New Agendas in Korean Women’s Movements: Reflexivity and Communication between Differences). An-gwa bak (In/Outside: English Studies in Korea) 21: 10–39.
Jackson, Sarah, et al. 2019. “Women Tweet on Violence: From #YesAllWomen to #MeToo.” Ada: A Journal of Gender, New Media, and Technology 15 (January). https://doi.org/10.5399/uo/ada.2019.15.6.
Jang, MinGi. 2016. “Dijiteol neitibeu yeo/seong juche-ui undong jeollyak—Megalliareul jungsim-euro” (Social Movement Strategy of Digital Native Fe/Male Subject: Focused on ‘Megalia’). Midieo, jendeo & munhwa (Media, Gender &Culture) 31.3: 219–255.
Jeong, Euisol, and Jieun Lee. 2018. “We Take the Red Pill, We Confront the DickTrix:Online Feminist Activism and the Augmentation of Gendered Realities in South Korea.” Feminist Media Studies 18.4: 705–717. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2018.1447354.
Jeong, Hee-Jin. 2018. “Pihaeja jeongcheseong-ui jeongchi-wa peminijeum” (The Politics of Victim Identity and Feminism). In Pihae-wa gahae-ui peminijeum (Feminism of Harm and Offense), edited by Hyun Young KwonKim, 201–236. Seoul: Gyoyangin.
Jeong, Yeonbo. 2015. “‘Yeong peminiseuteu’-wa ‘yeoseong’-ui jaeguseong: Webjin ‘dallara ddalsepo’-reul tonghae bon jeongcheseong, chai, jaehyeon-e daehan gomindeul” (‘Young Feminists’ and the Remaking of ‘Woman’: The Politics of Identity, Difference, and Representation in a Feminist Webzine Dalara Dalsepo). Hanguk yeoseonghak (Journal of Korean Women’s Studies) 31.3: 31–64.
John, Mary E. 2020. “Feminism, Sexual Violence and the Times of #MeToo in India.”Asian Journal of Women’s Studies 26.2: 137–158. https://doi.org/10.1080/12259276.2020.1748259.
Joung, Seung Hwa. 2018. “Geupjin peminijeum-eul kwieo hyeomo-ro buteo guhaenaegi: Yeoseong undong-gwa seongsosuja undong-ui yeondae-reul wihan siron” (Saving Radical Feminism from Queerphobia). Munhwa/Gwahak (Culture/Science) 95: 50–73.
Jun, EuyRyung. 2020. “Taja-ui bonjilhwa aneseo-ui uyeonhan yeondae: Hanguk-ui ban damunhwa-wa nanmin bandae-ui jendeo jeongchi” (Accidental Solidarity in the Essentialization of the Other: The Gendered Politics of Ban Damunhwa and Anti-Refugee Sentiments in South Korea). Gyeongje-wa sahoe (Economy and Society) 125: 360–401.
Kang, Haeryun. 2018. “My Life Isn’t Your Porn: Why South Korean Women Protest.”Korea Exposé. June 10. https://www.koreaexpose.com/south-koreas-biggestwomens-protest-in-history-is-against-spycam-porn/.
Kang, Jae-gu. 2020. “Sookmyung Women’s University’s First Transgender Student Faces Discriminations Both On and Off Campus.” Hankyoreh. February 3. http://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_national/926747.html.
Kang, Jiyeon. 2016. Igniting the Internet: Youth and Activism in Postauthoritarian South Korea. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press.
Kang, Pureum. 2016. “[6cha chotbul jiphoe] Pemijon hyeonjang ‘pemi, jangaein, kwieo, cheongsonyeon dahamggye gabujangje toechihaja” ([6th Candlelight Vigil] Femi-Zone Site ‘Feminists, Disabled, Queer, and Youth All Together, Let’s Abolish Patriarchy!’). Yeoseong shinmun (Women’s News), December 3. http://www.womennews.co.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=100093.
Keller, Jessalynn, et al. 2018. “Speaking ‘Unspeakable Things’: Documenting Digital Feminist Responses to Rape Culture.” Journal of Gender Studies 27.1: 22–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2016.1211511.
Kim, Ae-Ra. 2019. “‘Talkoreuset,’ getredi wideu mi (#getreadywithme): Dijiteol gyeongje-ui daejunghwadoen peminijeum” (The Movement of ‘Tal-Corsets’[Taking off All Corsets], #getreadywithme: Popular Feminism in the Digital Economy). Hanguk yeoseonghak (Journal of Korean Women’s Studies) 35.3:43–78.
Kim, Bohyeong. 2021. “Thrift Television in South Korea: The Long Recession and the Financial Makeover of Female Consumers in Homo Economicus (EBS).” Television & New Media (January). https://doi.org/10.1177/1527476420987143.
Kim, Bo-Myung. 2008. “1990-nyeondae daehak banseong pongnyeok undong-ui yeoseongjuui jeongchihak” (The Feminist Politics of Campus Feminist Activism against Sexual Violence in 1990’s Korea). Peminijeum yeongu (Issues in Feminism) 8.1: 191–217.
Kim, Bo-Myung. 2018a. “Peminijeum-ui jaebusang, geu gyeongno-wa teukjing-deul”(Feminism Revival and the Politics of Survival). Gyeongje-wa sahoe (Economy and Society) 118: 99–138.
Kim, Bo-Myung. 2018b. “Hyeomo-ui jeongdong gyeongjehak-gwa peminiseuteu jeohang:‘Ilgan beseuteu,’ ‘megallia,’ geurigo ‘womadeu’-reul jungsim-euro” (Late Modern Misogyny and Feminist Politics: The Case of Ilbe, Megalia, and Womad). Hanguk yeoseonghak (Journal of Korean Women’s Studies) 34.1: 1–31.
Kim, Dae Hyun. 2020. “Gei-wa peminijeum” (Gay and Feminism). Munhwa/Gwahak (Culture/Science) 104: 135–151.
Kim, Jinsook. 2017. “#iamafeminist as the ‘Mother Tag’: Feminist Identification and Activism against Misogyny on Twitter in South Korea.” Feminist Media Studies 17.5: 804–820. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2017.1283343.
Kim, Jinsook 2018. “Misogyny for Male Solidarity: Online Hate Discourse Against Women in South Korea.” In Mediating Misogyny: Gender, Technology, and Harassment, edited by Jacqueline Ryan Vickery and Tracy Everbach, 151–169. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Kim, Jinsook. 2021. “Sticky Activism: The Gangnam Station Murder Case and New Feminist Practices Against Misogyny and Femicide.” JCMS: Journal of Cinema and Media Studies 60.4: 37–60. https://doi.org/10.1353/cj.2021.0044.
Kim, Kyounghee. 2002. “A Frame Analysis of Women’s Policies of Korean Government and Women’s Movements in the 1980s and 1990s.” Korea Journal 42.2: 5–36.
Kim, Minjeong. 2014. “Ilbesik ‘yok’-ui beopjeok gyuje-e daehayeo: Ollainsang-eseoui hyeomo pyohyeon-e daehan gaenyeomjeok gochal” (Regulating Hate Speech at Ilbe.Com? A Conceptual Analysis of Online Hate Speech). Eollon-gwa beop (Journal of Media Law, Ethics and Policy) 13.2: 131–163.
Kim, Ri-Na. 2017. “Megallian-deul-ui yeoseong beomju gihoek-gwa yeondae:Jungyohan geon ‘nuga’ anin uri-ui ‘gyehoek’ ida” (The Megalians’ Project of the Category of Women and the Solidarities: The Important Thing Is Not ‘Who’But Our ‘Plan’). Hanguk yeoseonghak (Journal of Korean Women’s Studies)33.3: 109–140.
Kim, Seung-Kyung, and Kyounghee Kim. 2011. “Gender Mainstreaming and the Institutionalization of the Women’s Movement in South Korea.” Women’s Studies International Forum 34.5: 390–400. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2011.05.004.
Kim, Sooah. 2015. “Ollainsang-ui yeoseong hyeomo pyohyeon” (Misogynistic Cyber Hate Speech in Korea). Peminijeum yeongu (Issues in Feminism) 15.2: 279–317.
Koo, JiHae. 2020. “South Korean Cyberfeminism and Trolling: The Limitation of Online Feminist Community Womad as Counterpublic.” Feminist Media Studies 20.6: 831–846. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2019.1622585.
Korean Women’s Development Institute. 2019. “A Survey of 20-Year-Olds’Perceptions of Feminism in Korean Society.” Korean Women’s Development Institute. March 8. http://eng.kwdi.re.kr/news/newsView.do?p=1&idx=102201.
Kuhn, Anthony. 2019. “South Korean Women ‘Escape the Corset’ and Reject Their Countr y’s Beauty Ideal s .” NPR.org. May 6. https://www.npr.org/2019/05/06/703749983/south-korean-women-escape-the-corset-andreject-their-countrys-beauty-ideals.
Kwon, Heejo, and Jin-Tae Hwang. 2020. “Sahoe undong gonggan-eseo ‘chai-deul-eul wihan yeongyeokhwa’ jeollyak-e daehan geomto: 2016-nyeon gwanghwamun chotbul jiphoe pemijon-eul sarye-ro” (Territorialization for Differences as a Social Movement Strategy: The Case of ‘Femi-Zone’ in the 2016 Candlelight Protest in South Korea). Hanguk jiyeok jirihakhoeji (Journal of the Korean Association of Regional Geographers) 26.1: 43–55.
KwonKim, Hyun Young. 2000. “Gun gasanjeomje / Sodongeseo nonjaengeuro: Gun gasanjeom sodong-gwa ssaibeo tereo” (Veterans’ Extra Point System and Cyber Terrorism). Yeoseong-gwa sahoe (Women & Society) 11: 133–145.
KwonKim, Hyun Young. 2017. “Yeong peminiseuteu, netpemi-ui saeroun dojeon: 1990-nyeondae jungban-buteo 2000-nyeondae jungban-kkaji” (Young Feminists: A New Challenge for Net Feminists from the Mid-1990s to the Mid-2000s). In Daehan minguk netpemisa: Uri-egedo bit-gwa geuneul-ui yeoksa-ga itda (Net Feminism Herstory: The History of Light and Shadow), 11–77. Seoul: Namu Yeonpil.
Lee, Hanee. 2018. “Hanguk yeoseong peminijeum-ui yeoksa” (History of Korean Feminism). Kyunghyang Shinmun. July 21. http://news.khan.co.kr/kh_news/khan_art_view.html?art_id=201807211311021.
Lee, Hyomin. 2019. “Peminijeum jeongchihak-ui geupjinjeok jaeguseong: Hanguk ‘TERF’-e daehan bipanjeok bunseok-eul jungsim-euro” (Radical Reconstruction of Feminist Politics: Focusing on the Critical Analysis of ‘TERF’ in South Korea). Midieo, jendeo & munhwa (Media, Gender & Culture)34.3: 159–223.
Lee, Minji. 2021. “(News Focus) Anger Mounts Over Deepfake Porn Targeting Korean Female Celebs; More than 330,000 Sign Petition.” Yonhap News. January 14. https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20210114006500315.
Lee, Na-Young. 2016. “Yeoseong hyeomo-wa jendeo chabyeol, peminijeum:‘Gangnamyeok 10-beon chulgu’-reul jungsim-euro” (Misogyny, Gender Discrimination, and Feminism: A Feminist Project of Social Justice Surrounding ‘Gangnam Station 10th Exit’). Munhwa-wa sahoe (Culture &Society) 22: 147–186.
Lee, Young Ja. 2002. “Peminijeum-ui daejunghwa: Myeot gaji yuhyeong-e gwanhan ganeungseong-gwa dilemma-ui tamsaek” (Popularization of Feminism: Its Possibility and Dilemma). Hanguk yeoseonghak (Journal of Korean Women’s Studies) 18.1: 37–70.
Lievrouw, Leah. 2011. Alternative and Activist New Media. Cambridge, UK: Polity.
Lin, Zhongxuan, and Liu Yang. 2019. “Individual and Collective Empowerment:Women’s Voices in the #MeToo Movement in China.” Asian Journal of Women’s Studies 25.1: 117–131. https://doi.org/10.1080/12259276.2019.1573002.
McCurry, Justin. 2021. “South Korean AI Chatbot Pulled from Facebook after Hate Speech towards Minorities.” The Guardian. January 14. http://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jan/14/time-to-properly-socialise-hate-speechai-chatbot-pulled-from-facebook.
McRobbie, Angela. 2004. “Post‐feminism and Popular Culture.” Feminist Media Studies 4.3: 255–264. https://doi.org/10.1080/1468077042000309937.
Mendes, Kaitlynn, et al. 2019. Digital Feminist Activism: Girls and Women Fight Back Against Rape Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Murphy, Meghan. 2017. “‘TERF’ Isn’t Just a Slur, It’s Hate Speech.” Feminist Current. September 21. https://www.feministcurrent.com/2017/09/21/terf-isnt-slurhate-speech/.
Nelson, Laura C., and Haejoang Cho. 2016. “Women, Gender & Social Change in South Korea Since 1945.” In Routledge Handbook of Modern Korean History, edited by Michael J. Seth, 326–342. Abingdon: Routledge. https://doi. org/10.4324/9781315816722.
Nuñez Puente, Sonia. 2011. “Feminist Cyberactivism: Violence Against Women, Internet Politics, and Spanish Feminist Praxis Online.” Continuum 25.3: 333–346. https://doi.org/10.1080/10304312.2011.562964.
Pearce, Ruth, et al. 2020. “TERF Wars: An Introduction.” Sociological Review 68.4: 677–698. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038026120934713.
Queer Feminist Magazine FeRM. 2017. “Sseugga pemi” (Sseu-Kka Femi). Seoul:UNNInetwork.
Ryu, Jin-hee. 2015. “‘Chotbul sonyeo’-eseo ‘megallian’ kkaji, 2000-nyeondae yeoseong hyeomo-wa injonghwa-reul dulleossago” (From ‘Candle Light Girls’ to ‘Megalian,’ Moving toward Misogyny and Racialization in the 2000s). Sai/間/SAI (SAI) 19: 41–66.
Seo, Seung-Hui. 2017. “Saibeo seongpongnyeok pihae-ui teukseong-gwa geunjeoleul wihan daeeung bangan: Bidongui yupo seongjeok chwalyeongmul-eul jungsim-euro” (A Study on the Characteristics and Countermeasures of Cyber Sexual Violence). Ihwa jendeo beophak (Ewha Journal of Gender and Law) 9.3:59–95.
Seo, Yoonjung. 2020. “Dozens of Young Women in South Korea Were Allegedly Forced Into Sexual Slavery On An Encrypted Messaging App” CNN. March 28. https://www.cnn.com/2020/03/27/asia/south-korea-telegram-sex-rooms-intlhnk/index.html.
Sohn, Hee Jeong. 2017. Peminijeum ributeu: Hyeomo-ui sidae-reul ttulko naon moksori-deul (Feminism Reboot: The Voices from the Era of Hate). Seoul:Namu Yeonpil.
Steger, Isabella. 2016. “An Epic Battle Between Feminism and Deep-Seated Misogyny Is under Way In South Korea.” Quartz. October 24. https://qz.com/801067/anepic-battle-between-feminism-and-deep-seated-misogyny-is-under-way-insouth-korea/.
Taylor, Adam, and Min Joo Kim. 2018. “At South Korean Beaches and Swimming Pools, A War against Tiny Spy Cameras.” Washington Post. July 30. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/at-south-korean-beaches-andswimming-pools-a-war-against-tiny-spy-cameras/2018/07/30/8804c3b4-9071-11e8-9b0d-749fb254bc3d_story.html.
Transgender Liberation Front. 2019. “#teuraenseujendeo_hyeomo-reul_meomchwijuseyo” (#stop_the_transgender_hate). Teuraenseu haebang jeonseon (The Transgender Liberation Front). April 13. https://transliberationfront. com/24.
Um, Jin. 2016. “Jeollyakjeok yeoseong hyeomo-wa geu mosun: Inteonet keomyuniti ‘ilgan beseuteu jeongjangso’-ui gesimul bunseok-eul jungsim-euro” (Strategic Misogyny and Its Contradiction: Focusing on the Analysis of the Posts on the Internet Community Site Ilgan Best Jeojangso [Daily Best Storage]). Midieo, jendeo & munhwa (Media, Gender & Culture) 31.2: 193–236.
Winch, Alison, et al. 2016. “Why ‘Intergenerational Feminist Media Studies’?” Feminist Media Studies 16.4: 557–572. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2016.1193285.
Yun, Bora. 2013. “Ilbe-wa yeoseong hyeomo: Ilbe-neun eodi-e-na itgo eodi-e-do eopda” (Ilbe and Misogyny). Jinbo pyeongnon (The Radical Review) 57: 33–56.
Yun, Bora. 2020. “Dijiteol geojuji-wa seongpongnyeok: ‘Kakaotok danche chaetingbang seonghuirong sageon’-eul dasi bogi” (Digital Dwellings and Sexual Violence: Re-viewing ‘Kakao Talk Dantalk-bang [Group Chat Room]Sexual Harassment’). Peminijeum yeongu (Issues in Feminism) 20.1: 123–165.