바로가기메뉴

본문 바로가기 주메뉴 바로가기

logo

Co-governance and the Environmental Movement

Korea Journal / Korea Journal, (P)0023-3900; (E)2733-9343
2021, v.61 no.4, pp.135-171
https://doi.org/10.25024/kj.2021.61.4.135

  • Downloaded
  • Viewed

Abstract

The power of social movements depends on their autonomy to formulate agendas free from the control of powerful actors and challenge the status quo through sustained collective action. It was with this power of social movement that political challengers in South Korea were able to force authoritarian rulers to concede democracy and to expand democratic rights in the postauthoritarian period. However, the political relations between challengers and the government have shown significant change since the advent of the new millennium. At the core of this shift has been the institutionalization of co-governance, or hyeopchi, that celebrated cooperative partnership between government and civil society. An abundance of research has been done on co-governance with the intent of promoting this partnership from a public policy point of view. Critical analyses concerning how co-governance may have affected the ability of social movements to challenge existing power relations or the autonomous capacity of civil society have been conspicuous for their absence. This paper fills this lacuna by tracing the trajectory of the environmental movement with a focus on the introduction of co-governance mechanisms in the mid-2000s that significantly altered the political relationship between potential challengers and the powers that be. What emerges out of this analysis is a picture of the South Korean environmental movement that set out as an independent political movement gradually losing its autonomy and becoming part of the status quo. While co-governance may have expanded the scope of citizen participation and animated local communities, it has been inimical to the power of social movements to effect meaningful change.

keywords
environmental movement, political autonomy, institutionalization, governance, NGOs

Reference

1.

Abelmann, Nancy. 1996. Echoes of the Past, Epics of Dissent: A South Korean Social Movement. Berkeley: University of California Press.

2.

Aleman, Jose. 2005. “Protest and Democratic Consolidation: A Korean Perspective.”International Journal of Korean Studies 9.1: 71–91.

3.

Alexander, Jennifer, and Kandyce Fernandez. 2021. “The Impact of Neoliberalism on Civil Society and Nonprofit Advocacy.” Nonprofit Policy Forum 12.2: 367–394.

4.

Amsden, Alice. 1989. Asia’s New Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

5.

Bae, Yooil, and Sunhyuk Kim. 2013. “Civil Society and Local Activism in South Korea’s Local Democratization.” Democratization 20.2: 260–286.

6.

Chang, Kyung-Sup. 1999. “Compressed Modernity and Its Discontents: South Korean Society in Transition.” Economy and Society 28.1: 30–55.

7.

Chang, Young bae, and Jaekak Han. 2011. “Hanguk eneoji jeongchaek-gwa gisul hyeoksin gwajeong-ui simin chamyeo ” (Citizen Participation in Energy Policy and Technological Innovation in Korea). In Simin-ui gwahak: Gwahak-ui gonggongseong hoebok-eul wihan simin sahoe-ui jeollyak (Citizens’ Science: A Strategy for Restoring the Public Nature of Science), edited by Simin gwahak senteo, 193–220. Seoul: Science Books.

8.

Chang, Yun-Shik. 2009. “Left and Right in South Korean Politics.” In Korea Confronts Globalization, edited by Yunshik Chang, et al., 173–191. London:Routledge.

9.

Cheong, Yong-in. 2017. “Munjaein jeongbu simin sahoe hyeopchi, chamyeo jeongbu neomeoseona” (Will Civil Society Cooperation with the Moon Administration Go beyond Roh’s Participatory Government). Kyunghyang shinmun. June 10. http://news.khan.co.kr/kh_news/khan_art_view.html?art_id=201706101420001(accessed May 10, 2021).

10.

Cho, Dae-Yop. 2006. “Korean Citizens’ Movement Organizations: Their Ideologies, Resources, and Action Repertoires.” Korea Journal 46.2: 68–98.

11.

Cho, Hong-seop. 2004. “Hwangyeong-ui wigi, hwangyeong undong-ui wigi” (The Crisis of the Environment, the Crisis of the Environmental Movement). Hankyoreh. December 5. http://legacy.www.hani.co.kr/section-001014000/2004/12/001014000200412051926006.html (accessed March 12, 2021).

12.

Choi, Jang Jip. 2000. “Democratization, Civil Society, and the Civil Social Movement in Korea: The Significance of the Citizens’ Alliance for the 2000 General Elections.” Korea Journal 40.3: 26–57.

13.

Climate Crisis Emergency Action. 2020. “Mokpyo eomneun geurin nyudillo-neun gihu wigi daeeunghal su eopta” (The Climate Crisis Cannot be Overcome with a Green New Deal That Lacks a Goal). http://climate-strike.kr/2601/ (accessed November 5, 2021).

14.

Cohen, Jean L., and Andrew Arato. 1992. Civil Society and Political Theory. Boston:MIT Press.

15.

Doucette, Jamie. 2010. “The Terminal Crisis of the ‘Participatory Government’ and the Election of Lee Myung Bak.” Journal of Contemporary Asia 40.1: 22–43.

16.

Eder, Norman. 1995. Poisoned Prosperity: Development, Modernization, and the Environment in South Korea. Armonk, NY: Taylor and Francis.

17.

Environmental Emergency Council (Hwangyeong bisang gukhoe). 2004. “Hwangyeong bisang gukhoe-ui chulbeomseoneonmun” (Inaugural Statement of the Environmental Emergency Council). http://kfem.or.kr/?p=14261(accessed March 19, 2021).

18.

Frymer, Paul. 1999. Uneasy Alliances: Race and Party Competition in America. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

19.

Gamson, William. 1975. The Strategy of Social Protest. Belmont, CA: Dorsey Press.

20.

Ganz, Marshall, and Art Reyes III. 2020. “Reclaiming Civil Society.” Realizing Democracy (Winter): 6–9.

21.

Green Korea United. 2011. Seumusal, noksaek dalpaengiui sangsangsilhyeon: Noksaek undong 20-seon (Twenty Years of Green Movement: Green Korea United 20th Anniversary Sourcebook). Seoul: Green Korea United.

22.

Greenpeace Korea. 2020. “Geurinpiseu, banjjok jjari geurin nyudil-e keunakeun silmang” (Deep Disappointment at a Half-baked Green New Deal). https://www.greenpeace.org/korea/press/14426/presslease-green-new-deal-statement/(accessed November 5, 2021).

23.

Han, Do Hyun. 1995. “Environmental Movements Against Golf Course Development in Korea Since the Late 1980s.” Korea Journal of Population and Development 24.1: 57–70.

24.

Ho, Ming-sho. 2005. “Taiwan’s State and Social Movements Under the DPP Government, 2000–2004.” Journal of East Asian Studies 5.3: 401–425.

25.

Hong, Deok-Hwa. 2019. “Gongnonhwa-ui jeongchi-wa eneoji minjujuui-ui gwaje”(The Politics of Public Deliberation and the Task of Energy Democracy). In Eneoji minjujuui, naengjeong-gwa yeoljeong sai: Singori 5,6hogi gongnonhwareul dorabomyeo (Energy Democracy, Between Calmness and Passion: Looking Back at the Public Discussion of Shin-Kori Units 5-6), edited by Seyoung Kim, et al., 91–110. Seoul: Haepi seutori.

26.

Hong, Deok-Hwa., and Do-Wan Ku. 2014. “Minjuhwa ihu hanguk hwangyeong undong-ui jedohwa-wa anjeonghwa: Jeohang sageon bunseo-eul jungsim-euro”(Environmental Movement After Democratization in Korea: A Protest Event Analysis). Eco 18.1: 151–186.

27.

Hong, Deok-Hwa., and Young-Hee Lee. 2014. “Hanguk-ui eneoji undong-gwa eneoji sitijeunsip: Yuhyeong-gwa teukjing” (Energy Movements and the Typology of Energy Citizenship in Korea). Eco 18.1: 7–44.

28.

Horowitz, Shale, and Sunwoong Kim. 2002. “Public Interest ‘Blackballing’ in South Korea’s Elections.” Party Politics 8.5: 541–562.

29.

INCITE! Women of Color Against Violence, ed. 2007. The Revolution Will Not be Funded: Beyond the Non-Profit Industrial Complex. Durham: Duke University Press.

30.

Jeong, Gyu-Ho. 2002. “Jisok ganeungseong-eul wihan geobeoneonseu-eseo hapui hyeongseong silpae munje—noksaek seoul simin wiwonhoe-ui gyeongheom”(The Consensus Building Problem of the Governance System for Sustainability:A Case Study of the Citizen’s Committee for Green Seoul). Eco 3: 43–67.

31.

Jin, Sang-Hyeon. 2006. “Hwangyeong undong-gwa gachi byeonhwa cheungmyeoneseo bon cheonseongsan sarye yeongu” (A Study on Mt. Cheonseong from the Viewpoint of Environmental Movement and Value Change). Eco 10.1: 73–103.

32.

Kang, Myung-koo. 2011. “Compressed Modernization and the Formation of a Developmentalist Mentalité.” In Reassessing the Park Chung Hee Era, 1961-1979: Development, Political Thought, Democracy, and Cultural Influence, edited by Hyung. A Kim and Clark W. Sorenson, 166–186. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

33.

KAPMA (Korea Anti-Pollution Movement Alliance). 1992. “Wigi-e cheohan gongchuryeon-eul kkok sallyeonaepsida” (Let’s Save KAPMA from Crisis). In Gonghae chubang undong yeonhap gwallyeon munseo moeum (Korea Democracy Foundation Open Archives). https://archives.kdemo.or.kr/isad/view/00007422 (accessed March 7, 2021).

34.

KFEM (Korea Federation for Environmental Movements). 1993. Hwangyeong undong yeonhap changnip daehoe jaryojip (KFEM Inaugural Convention Booklet). Seoul: KFEM.

35.

KFEM (Korea Federation for Environmental Movements). 2003. “Nomuhyeon jeongbu-ui hwangyeongbunya gaehyeok sangsil-eul gyutanhaneun siminsahoeinsa 1,000in seoneon mit gijahoegyeon” (One-Thousand Person Declaration to Condemn the Roh Moo-hyun Administration’s Absence of Environmental Reform). http://kfem.or.kr/?p=15078 (accessed March 19, 2021).

36.

KFEM (Korea Federation for Environmental Movements). Hwangyeong undong yeonhap 20-nyeon baekseo (Twenty Years of KFEM).F-B-0001507, April 2, 2013.

37.

KFEM (Korea Federation for Environmental Movements). 2014. “Sahoe gongheon annae” (Information on Social Contribution). http://ecoseoul.or.kr/사회공헌-안내 (accessed April 26, 2021).

38.

KFEM (Korea Federation for Environmental Movements). 2018. Saram-gwa jayeon-eul wihayeo: hwangyeong undong yeonhap haengdong hada 1993–2018 (For People and Nature: KFEM Acts, 1993–2018). Seoul: KFEM.

39.

KFEM (Korea Federation for Environmental Movements). 2020. “Geurin nyudil seonggong haryeomyeon, mokpyo-wa gwaje seoljeong jedaero bowan haeya” (Goals and Tasks Need to be Complemented for the Green New Deal to Succeed). http://kfem.or.kr/?p=208426 (accessed March 20, 2021).

40.

Kim, Chul-kyoo, and Sung-Ik Cho. 2004. “Haekpyegijang galdeung-ui gujo-wa donghak- buan sarye-reul jungsim-euro” (The Structure and Dynamics of Social Conflict around Nuclear Waste Facility: Focusing on the Buan Struggle). Gyeongje-wa sahoe (Economy and Society) 63: 12–28.

41.

Kim, Hyuk-Rae. 2013. State-centric to Contested Social Governance in Korea: Shifting Power. London: Routledge.

42.

Kim, Sangmin. 2017. “From Protest to Collaboration: The Evolution of the Community Movements Amid Sociopolitical Transformation in South Korea.”Urban Studies 54.16: 3806–3825.

43.

Kim, Seong-jae. 2005. “Hwangyeong geodeupnaya handa” (The Environmental Movement Needs to be Reborn). Hankyoreh. April 25 (accessed November 8, 2021). https://www.hani.co.kr/arti/opinion/editorial/29205.html

44.

Kim, Sun-Chul. 2016. Democratization and Social Movements in South Korea:Defiant Institutionalization. London: Routledge.

45.

Kim, Sung Hwan, et al. 2020. “Public Deliberation on South Korean Nuclear Power Plants: How Can Lay Knowledge Resist Against Expertise?” East Asian Science, Technology and Society: An International Journal 14.3: 459–477.

46.

Kim, Sunhyuk. 1997. “State and Civil Society in South Korea’s Democratic Consolida- tion: Is the Battle Really Over?” Asian Survey 37.12: 1135–1144.

47.

Kim, Sunhyuk. 2000. The Politics of Democratization in Korea: The Role of Civil Society. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.

48.

Kim, Yong Cheol. 1998. “Industrial Reform and Labor Backlash in South Korea:Genesis, Escalation, and Termination of the 1997 General Strike.” Asian Survey 38.12: 1142–1160.

49.

Ministry of Environment. 2001. “Mingan hwangyeong danche jeongchaek hyeobuihoe gyujeong” (Non-governmental Environmental Organization Policy Council Code). KLIC (Korea Law Information Center). https://www.law.go.kr/LSW/admRulInfoP.do?admRulSeq=70803 (accessed May 17, 2021).

50.

Ministry of Environment. 2019. “Enforcement Decree of the Framework Act on Environmental Policy.” KLIC (Korea Law Information Center). https://www.law.go.kr/LSW/eng/engLsSc.do?menuId=2&section=lawNm&query=environmental+policy+&x=21&y=32#liBgcolor0 (accessed June 7, 2021).

51.

KLTC (Korea Law Translation Center). 2017. “Assistance for Non-profit, Nongovernmental Organizations Act.” https://elaw.klri.re.kr/eng_service/lawView.do?hseq=47145&lang=ENG (accessed March 17, 2021).

52.

Koo, Hagen. 1994. “Strong State and Contentious Society.” In State and Society in Contemporary Korea, edited by Hagen Koo, 231–250. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

53.

Korea NGOs Energy Network. 2008. “Eneoji wigi insikhaji motan anilhan gukga eneoji gibon gyehoekan: Wokeusyap deung-ui jeolcha-neun hyeongsikjeogin jeolcha balpgiro kkeunnago maratda” (An Insufficient Master Plan for National Energy That Failed to Recognize the Energy Crisis: Procedures Such as Workshops Ended with Routine Procedures). http://kfem.or.kr/?p=13063(accessed November 6, 2021).

54.

Ku, Chun-mo. 2008. “Gwageo-reul ditgo saeroun saengtae undong-eul!”(Overcoming the Past for a New Ecological Movement!). Sahoe undong (Social Movement) 58: 286–299.

55.

Ku, Do-Wan. 1996. “The Structural Change of the Korean Environmental Movement.” Korea Journal of Population and Development 25.1: 155–180.

56.

Ku, Do-Wan. 2011. “The Korean Environmental Movement: Green Politics Through Social Movement.” Korea Journal 44.3: 205–229.

57.

Ku, Do-Wan. 2012. “Saengtae-wa noksaekpyeonghwa—Sasang, munhak, undong:Saengtaeminjujuui gwanjeom-eseo bon hanguk banhaek undong” (The Anti-Nuclear Movement in South Korea: Evaluation in terms of Ecological Democracy). Tongil-gwa pyeonghwa (Unification and Peace) 4.2: 57–86.

58.

Ku, Do-Wan, and Deok Hwa Hong. 2013. “Hanguk hwangyeong undong-ui seongjanggwa bunhwa: Jedohwa nonui-reul jungsim-euro” (The Growth and Diversification of the Korean Environmental Movement: Focusing on Institutionalization). Eco 17.1: 79–120.

59.

Lee, Eun-Jin. 2006. “Local Self-Governance and the Citizens’ Movement.” Korea Journal 46.2: 129–154.

60.

Lee, Hong Yung. 2004. “South Korea in 2003: Question of Leadership?” Asian Survey 44.1: 130–138.

61.

Lee, Namhee. 2007. The Making of Minjung: Democracy and the Politics of Representation in South Korea. Ithaca: Cornell University Press

62.

Lee, Namhee. 2011. “From Minjung to the Simin: The Discursive Shift in South Korean Social Movements.” In South Korean Social Movements: From Democracy to Civil Society, edited by Gi-Wook Shin and Paul Y. Chang, 41–57. New York:Routledge.

63.

Lee, Sunhyang. 2016. “Jisok ganeunghan gukga baljeon model-gwa rokeol geobeoneonseu: Gut geobeoneonseu-ui jedojeok seolgye-e daehan jaegeomto”(Sustainable Development and Local Governance: Reviving Good Governance and Its Institutional Design). Sahoe gwahak yeongu (Journal of Social Science)55.1: 235–262.

64.

Maguire, Diarmuid. 1995. “Opposition Movements and Opposition Parties: Equal Partners or Dependent Relations in the Struggle for Power and Reform?” In The Politics of Social Protest: Comparative Perspectives on States and Social Movements, edited by J. Craig Jenkins and Bert Klandermans, 199–228. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

65.

Mathiesen, Karl. 2016. “South Korea Leads List of 2016 Climate Villains.” Climate Home News. November 4. https://www.climatechangenews.com/2016/11/04/south_korea_climate_villains/ (accessed March 20, 2021).

66.

Ministry of Environment. 2004. “Jisok ganeunghan jiyeok baljeon-eul wihan hwangyeong geobeoneonseu guchuk bangan” (Measures to Build Environmental Governance for Sustainable Regional Development). Working paper, Ministry of Environment, Seoul.

67.

MoIS (Ministry of the Interior and Safety). 2020. “Haengjeong gigwan wiwonhoe hyeonhwang” (Current State of Administrative Committees). Working paper, Ministry of the Interior and Safety, Seoul.

68.

MoTIE (Ministry of Trade, Industry, and Energy). 2013. “Gungmin haengbok sidaeui sineneoji jeongchaek, keun georeum naeditta” (New Energy Policy in the Era of National Happiness, A Big Step Forward). http://www.motie.go.kr/motie/ne/presse/press2/bbs/bbsView.do?bbs_cd_n=81&bbs_seq_n=78381(accessed April 8, 2021).

69.

Oh, Seonggyu. 2005. “Hwangyeong bisang sigukhoe-ui hwaldong-gwa gwaje” (The Activities and Tasks of the Environmental Emergency Council). Munhwa/gwahak (Culture/Science) 41: 230–239.

70.

PAK (Presidential Archives of Korea). 2007. “Salgi joheun jiyeok mandeulgi”(Livable Community Building Project). (http://balance.pa.go.kr/policy/policy8.php?t_menu=1&l_menu=8 (accessed March 12, 2021).

71.

Park, Chong-Min. 2006. “Local Governance and Community Power in Korea.”Korea Journal 46.4: 9–32.

72.

Park, Jai Chang. 2007. “Hyeomnyeokjeok geobeoneonseu-ui guchuk-gwa NGO-ui jeongchaek gwajeong chamyeo: Chamyeo jeongbu-reul jungsim-euro”(Establishing Collaborative Governance and NGOs’ Participation in the Policy Process: The Case of ‘Participatory Government’). Hanguk jeongchaek gwahak hakhoebo (Korean Policy Sciences Review) 11.2: 221–250.

73.

Park, Jeong-yeop. 2021. “Mun jeongbu 3-nyeon, gagjong ‘wiwonhoe’ 585gaero geupjeung ‘sasang choedae’—hoeui gaechoe ‘0 geon’ do suduruk”(‘Government Committees’ Increase to 585 under Moon Administration:Many Don’t Even Meet). Chosun Biz. January 20. https://biz.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2021/01/19/2021011902471.html (accessed November 8, 2021)

74.

PCAD (Presidential Committee on Autonomy and Decentralization). “History of the Committee.” https://www.pcad.go.kr/eng/section/intro_history.html(accessed May 16, 2021).

75.

Piven, Frances Fox, and Richard A. Cloward. 1977. Poor Peoples’ Movements: Why They Succeed, How They Fail. New York: Pantheon.

76.

PRI (Korean Pollution Research Institute/Gonghae munje yeonguso). 1985. “Onsanbyeong-eul haebuhanda: Onsan jiyeok gonghae siltae chosabogoseo”(Dissecting Onsan Disease: Investigation Report of the Onsan Region). Sae gajeong (New Home) 346 (April): 115–124.

77.

Rho, Jin-Chul, and Eun-Hee Park. 2004. “Siminjeok seongchalgwajeong-gwa daegujiyeok siminsahoe-ui hyeongseong nakdonggang penol oyeom sageoneul jungsim-euro” (Civil Reflection and Formation of Civil Society in Daegu:Focusing on Phenol Pollution of Nakdong River). Eco7: 8–42.

78.

Rochon, R.Thomas, and David S. Meyer, eds. 1997. Coalitions and Political Movements: The Lessons of the Nuclear Freeze. London: Lynne Rienner.

79.

ROK Government. 2020. Hangukpan nyudil jonghap gyehoek (Korean New Deal Comprehensive Plan). July 14. Ministry of Economy and Finance.

80.

Sandoval, Salvadore A. M. 1998. “Social Movements and Democratization: The Case of Brazil and the Latin Countries.” In From Contention to Democracy, edited by Marco G. Guigni, et al., 169–201. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

81.

Seoul Metropolitan City. 2017. Seoul hyeopchi baekseo gachi mandeuneun hyeopchi seoul (Seoul Co-governance White Paper: Building Seoul’s Co-governance Together). Seoul: Seoul Metropolitan City.

82.

Shin, Gi-Wook, and Paul Y. Chang, eds. 2011. South Korean Social Movements: From Democracy to Civil Society. New York: Routledge.

83.

Sin, Tong-ho. 2006. “[Birok hwangyeong undong 25-nyeon] Onsanbyeong satae:Yeonggumije-ro bongindoen miseuteorigeuk” (The Hidden Stories of 25 Years of the Environmental Movement: The Onsan-disease Incident). Jugan gyeonghyang (Weekly Gyeonghyang). April 18. https://weekly.khan.co.kr/khnm.html?mode=view&artid=11818&code=115 (accessed April 4, 2021).

84.

Son, Hyeok-ki. 2006. “Nae-ga salgo sipeun jiyeok 30-got mandeunda: Seonjeong jiyeok-eun jungang bucheo yesan paekijiro jiwon” (Seeking 30 Communities Where I Want to Live: Selected Communities Will be Supported by Central Government Budget). ROK Policy Briefing. https://www.korea.kr/news/policyNewsView.do?newsId=148604440 (accessed November 6, 2021).

85.

Song, Yun-kyeong. 2017. “Mun Jaein jeongbu jangchagwan insa: ‘Simin undong-ga chulssin’ hwangyeong jeongchaek ikkeunda” (Moon Jae-in Administration’s Ministerial Appointment: ‘Former Activists’ Leading Environmental Policies). Kyunghyang shinmun. June 11. http://news.khan.co.kr/kh_news/khan_art_view.html?art_id=201706112226005 (accessed May 27, 2021).

86.

SPDC (Singori Units 5 and 6 Public Deliberation Committee). 2017. “Singori 5-6hogi gongnonhwa simin chamyeohyeong josa bogoseo” (Singori Units 5 and 6Public Deliberation Report). Singori Units 5 and 6 Public Deliberation Committee.

87.

Tilly, Charles. 1993. Coercion, Capital and European States: AD 990–1992. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

88.

Tilly, Charles. 2007. Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

89.

Treib, Oliver, et al. 2007. “Modes of Governance: Towards a Conceptual Clarification.”Journal of European Public Policy 14.1: 1–20.

90.

UNCED (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development). 1992. “Agenda 21.” Sustainable Development Goals Knowledge Platform. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/outcomedocuments/agenda21 (accessed March 7, 2021).

91.

Woo-Cumings, Meredith, ed. 1999. The Developmental State. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

92.

Working Group Participants (Working Group Participants in the Second Master Plan for National Energy). 2013. “2cha eneoji gibbon gyehoek mingwan weoking geurup chamyeo simin danche wiwondeul-ui ipjang” (Position of Civil Society Members in the Second Master Plan for National Energy Cogovernance Working Group). Noksaek Yeonhap. http://www.greenkorea.org/activity/energy-conversion/nuclear/36233/ (accessed April 8, 2021).

93.

YangYi, Weon-yeong. 2016. “Hanguk sahoe wonjeon, jeollyeok jeongchaek-gwa geobeoneonseu” (Nuclear Power, Electricity Policy, and Governance). In Gwahak gisul, jeonmunseong-ui jeongchi, geurigo geobeoneonseu: Simin chamyeo 20-nyeon-ui seongchaljeok pyeongga (Science and Technology, the Politics of Professionalism, and Governance: A Reflective Evaluation of 20 Years of Citizen Participation), edited by Katollikdae gwahak gisul minjujuui SSK yeongudan (Democracy of Science and Technology SSK Research Center, Catholic University), 1–12. Seoul: SSK yeonggudan.

94.

Yi, Heon-seok. 2017. “Gwageo haekgwallyeon gongnonhwa gwajeong-ui gyohun”(Past Cases of Conflict Resolution through Public Deliberation: Evaluation and Tasks). In Eneoji minjujuui-reul wihan singori 5,6hogi gongnonhwa-ui wonchikgwa banghyang (Principles and Directions for the Singori Unites 5 and 6 Public Deliberation), edited by Green Party Korea.

95.

Yi, P’il-yeol. 2005 “Wigi-ui hwangyeong undong, ije byeonhaeya handa” (The Environmental Movement in Crisis: It is Time for Change). Changjak-gwa bipyeong (Creation and Criticism) 127: 331–341.

96.

Yu, Ch’angbok. 2020. Simin minjujuui: Maeul, hyeopchi, jachi, 2012–2022 (Citizen Democracy: Local Community, Co-governance, Self-governance, 2012–2022). Seoul: The Seoul Institute.

Korea Journal