E-ISSN : 2733-4538
The purpose of this study was to examine the efficacy of the strengths-based intervention based on character strengths and temperament in the clinical population of adolescents with externalizing maladjustment behaviors. Changes of the dependent variables from the clinical population of adolescents were measured and compared at three different time points to examine the efficacy of the strength-based writing intervention using the corresponding strengths and the balancing strengths of Novelty Seeking (NS). The results of 43 clinical participants showed that the writing intervention using the strengths (creativity, curiosity, humor) corresponding to NS increased the subjective happiness scores and the writing intervention using the strengths (modesty, prudence, self-regulation) balancing NS decreased the externalizing problem scores. Based on the overall findings, the author discussed the implications on the understanding of adolescent externalizing maladjustment behaviors in theoretical and clinical manners. Finally, the limitations of this study were discussed along with suggestions for future research.
Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the Youth Self-Report and 1991 Profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont.
Achenbach, T. M., & Edelbrock, C. S. (1987). Empirically based assessment of the behavioral/emotional problems of 2- and 3-year old children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 15, 629-650.
Aldwin, C. M., Sutton, K., & Lachman, M. (1996). The development of coping resources in adulthood. Journal of Personality, 64, 91-113.
Baikie, K. A., Geerligs, L., & Wilhelm, K. (2012). Expressive writing and positive writing for participants with mood disorders: An online randomized controlled trial. Journal of Affective Disorders, 136, 310-319.
Beaver, B. R. (2008). A positive approach to children's internalizing problems. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 39, 129-136.
Biswas-Diener, R. (2006). From the equator to the north pole: a study of character strengths. Jounal of Happiness Studies, 7, 293-310.
Brdar, I., & Kashdan, T. B. (2010). Character strengths and well-being in Croatia: An empirical investigation of structure and correlates. Journal of Research in Personality, 44, 151-154.
Bushman, B. J., Baumeister, R. F., & Phillips, C. M. (2001). Do people aggress to improve their mood? Catharsis beliefs, affect regulation opportunity, and aggressive responding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 17-32.
Center, D., & Kemp, D. (2003). Temperament and personality as potential factors in the development and treatment of conduct disorders. Education of Treatment of Children, 26, 75-88.
Chandler, M. (1994). Self-continuity in suicidal and nonsuicidal adolescents. New Directions for Child Development, 64, 55-70.
Cho, M. H., & Cha, K. H. (1998). Comparison of the quality of life among nations: Asan Foundation's series of research. Seoul: Asan Foundation.
Cho, M. S. (2009). A study of the influences of writing of the positive past experience on self-esteem. (Unpublished master's thesis). Sangmyung University, Seoul, Korea.
Cloninger, C. R. (1987). A systematic method for clinical description and classification of personality variants: A proposal. Archives of General Psychiatry 44, 573-587.
Cloninger, C. R., & Gottesman. I. I. (1987) Genetic and environmental factors in antisocial behavior disorders. In S. A. Mednick, T. E. Moffit, & S. A. Stack (Eds.). Cause of crime: New biological approaches (pp. 92-109). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Cloninger, C. R., Przybeck, T. R., Svrakic, D. M., & Wetzel, R. D. (1994). The Temperament and Character Inventory(TCI): A Guide to its development and use. St. Louis, Missouri, MO: Center for Psychotherapy and Personality, Washington University.
Dahlsgaard, K., Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. (2005). Shared virtue: The convergence of valued human strengths. Review of General Psychology, 60, 203-213.
Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71-75.
Emmons R. A., & McCullough, M. E. (2003). Counting blessings versus burdens: An experimental investigation of gratitude and subjective well-being in daily life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 377-389.
Esterling, B. A., Antoni, M. H., Fletcher, M. A., Margulies, S., & Schneiderman, N. (1994). Emotion disclosure through writing or speaking modulates latent Epstein-Barr virus antibody titers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 130-140.
Garfield, S. (1983). Clinical Psychology, 2nd ed. New York: Aldine.
Gebauer, J. E., Broemer, P., Haddock, G., & von Hecker, U. (2008). Inclusion-exclusion of positive and negative past identities: Mood congruence as information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 470-487.
Greenberg, M. A., & Lepore, S. J. (2004). Theoretical mechanisms involved in disclosure: From inhibition to self-regulation. In I. Nyklicek, A. J. J. M. Vingerhoets, & L. R. Temoshok (Eds.). Emotional expression and health: Advances in theory, assessment and clinical applications (pp. 43-60). London: Brunner-Routledge.
Greenberg, M. A., & Stone, A. A. (1992). Emotional disclosure about traumas and health: Effects of previous disclosure and trauma severity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 75-84.
Greenberg, M. A., Wortman, C. B., & Stone, A. A. (1996). Emotional expression and physical health: Revising traumatic memories or fostering self-regulation? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 558-602.
Grove, A. B., Evans, S. W., Pastor, D. A., & Mack, S. D. (2008). A meta-analytic examination of follow-up studies of programs designed to prevent the primary symptoms of oppositional defiant and conduct disorders. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 13, 169-184.
Guastella, A. J., & Dadds, M. R. (2009). Sequential growth in cognitive-behavioral emotion-processing: A laboratory study. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 33, 368-374.
Guilamo-Ramos, V., Litardo, H. A., & Jaccard, J. (2005). Prevention programs for reducing adolescent problem behaviors: Implications of the co-occurrence of problem behaviors in adolescence. Journal of Adolescent Health, 36, 82-86.
Ha, S. S. (2014). The influence of the differences in character strengths related to Novelty Seeking on the adolescent externalizing maladjustment. Korean Journal of Youth Studies, 21(3), 1-27.
Ha, S. S. (2015). The moderating effect of adolescent character strengths on the relationship between temperament and maladjustment. Korean Journal of Youth Studies, 22(6), 1-32.
Ha, S. S., & Kwon, S. M. (2011a). Influences of temperament and perceived parenting styles on character strengths: Focusing on the mediating effect of perceives parenting styles. Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 30, 263-284.
Ha, S. S., & Kwon, S. M. (2011b). Therapeutic effect of expressive writing on specific phobias: A study of Korean and American university students. Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 30, 359-380.
Han, C. H. (2001). Effects of biogenetic and family environmental factors on depression, conduct and antisocial behaviors in adolescents-character, self-image and stress as mediating variables (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea.
Harter, J. K. (1998). Gage Park High School research study. Princeton, NJ: The Gallup Organization.
Henggeler, S. W. (1996). Treatment of violent juvenile offenders-we have the knowledge: Comment on Gorman-Smith et al. (1996). Journal of Family Psychology, 10, 137-141.
Henggeler, S. W., Schoenwald, S. K., & Pickrel, S. G. (1995). Multisystemic therapy: Bridging the gap between university- and community-based treatment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63, 709-717.
Horner, R. H., & Sugai, G. (2000). School-wide behavior support: An emerging initiative. Journal of Positive Behavioral Intervention, 2, 231-232.
Johnson, J., Gooding, P. A., Wood, A. M., & Tarrier, N. (2010). Resilience as positive coping appraisals: Testing the schematic appraisals model of suicide (SAMS). Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48, 179-186.
Kagan, J. (1989). Temperamental contributions to social behavior. American Psychologist, 44, 668-674.
Karwoski, L., Garrat, G. M.. & Ilardi, S. S. (2006). On the integration of cognitive-behavioral therapy for depression and positive psychology. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy: An International Quarterly, 20, 159-170.
Kazdin, A. E. (1992). Child and adolescent dysfunction and paths toward maladjustment: Targets for intervention. Clinical Psychology Review, 12, 795-817.
Kim, C. R., & Shin, H. C. (2011). Autoregressive cross-lagged model of positive emotions and positive coping. Korean Journal of Counseling and Psychology, 23, 451-469.
Kim, J. Y. (2011). The influence of character strengths on positive mental health (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea.
Kim, Y. J. (2009). Comparing effects of writing intensely positive and negative experience (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, Korea.
King, L. A. (2001). The health benefits of writing about life goals. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 191-220.
Kwon, S. M., & Ha, S. S. (2010). Happiness Triangle Scale. Manuscript in preparation.
Kwon, S. M., Kim, J. Y., & Ha, S. S. (2012). Character Strengths Test for Adolescents. Seoul: Hakjisa Press.
Lee, H. H., Kim, E. J., & Lee, M. G. (2003). A validation study of Korea positive affect and negative affect schedule: The PANAS scales. Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 22, 935-946.
Lee, H. J., & Won, H. T. (1995, December). An exploratory study on paranoid features, self concept and self-consciousness. Paper presented at the meeting of the Korean Psychological Association, Seoul.
Lepore, S. J., & Greenberg, M. A. (2002). Mending broken hearts: Effects of expressive writing on mood, cognitive processing, social adjustment, and health following a relationship breakup, Psychology and Health, 17, 547-560.
Lepore, S. J., & Smyth, J. M. (2002). The writing cure: An overview. In S. J. Lepore & J. M. Smyth (Eds.). The writing cure: How expressive writing promotes health and emotional well-being (pp. 3-13). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Lim, Y. J. (2010). The influence of character strengths and a strengths-based positive psychotherapy on happiness (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea.
Linley, A., Maltby, J., Wood, A. M., Joseph, S., Harrington, S., Peterson, C., Park, N., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2007). Character strengths in the United Kingdom: The VIA inventory of Strengths. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 341-351.
Loftus, E. F. (1993). The reality of repressed memories. American Psychologist, 48, 518-537.
Lykken, D., & Tellegen, A. (1996). Happiness is a stochastic phenomenon. Psychological Science, 7, 186-189.
Lyubomirsky, S., Sheldon, K. M., & Schkade, D. (2005). Pursuing happiness: The architecture of sustainable change. Review of General Psychology, 9, 111-131.
Macdonald, C., Bore, M., & Munro, D. (2008). Values in action scale and the Big 5: An empirical indication of structure. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 787-799.
Min, B. B., Oh, H. S., & Lee, J. Y. (2007). Temperament and Character Inventory-Family Manual. Seoul.: Maumsarang Press.
Moon, J. H. (2009). The effect of expressive writing on implicit self-esteem (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Korea.
Mullen, D. E. (2007). Living your strengths: a positive psychology approach. Bloomington. IN: AuthorHouse.
Oh, K. J., Ha, E. H., Lee, H. R., & Hong, K. E. (2007). Korean-Youth Self Report Manual. Seoul: Huno Consulting.
Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). Character strengths among youth. Adolescents and Family Health, 4, 35-40.
Park, N., Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Strengths of character and well-being. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23, 603-619.
Pasupathi, M. (2001). The social construction of the personal past and its implications for adult development. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 651-672.
Pennebaker, J. W. (1990). Opening up: The healing power of confiding in others. New York, NY: Avon.
Pennebaker, J. W., & Beall, S. (1986). Confronting a traumatic event: Towards an understanding of inhibition and disease. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 274-281.
Pennebaker, J. W., Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., & Glaser, R. (1988). Disclosure of traumas and immune function: Health implications for psychotherapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 239-245.
Pennebaker, J. W., Mayne, T. J., Francis, M. E. (1997). Linguistic predictors of adaptive bereavement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 863-871.
Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. New York: Oxford University Press/Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Petrie, K. J., Booth, R., Pennebaker, J. W., Davison, K. P., & Thomas, M. (1995). Disclosure of trauma and immune response to Hepatitis B vaccination program. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63, 787-792.
Progoff, I. (1975). At a Journal workshop: The basic text and guide of using the intensive journal process. New York: Dialogue House.
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Rothbart, M., & Bates, J. E. (1998). Temperament. In W. Damon & N. Eisenberg (Eds.). Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development. (5th ed., pp. 105-176). New York: Wiley.
Routledge, C., Arndt, J., Sedikides, C., & Wildschut, T. (2008). A blast from the past: The terror management function of nostalgia. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 132-140.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). To be happy or to be self-fulfilled: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. In S. Fiske (Ed.). Annual review of psychology (pp. 141-166). Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews.
Schubiner, H., Tzelepis, A., Milberger, S., Lockhart, N., & Kruger, M. (2000). Prevalence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and conduct disorder among substance abusers. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 61, 244-251.
Schwarz, B., & Sharpe, K. E. (2006). Practical wisdom: Aristotle meets positive psychology. Journal of Happiness Studies, 7, 377-395.
Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Authentic Happiness. New York: Free Press.
Seligman, M. E. P., Steen, T. A., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist, 60, 410-421.
Selman, R. L., Schultz, L. H., Nakkula, M., Barr, D., Watts, C., and Richmond, J. B. (1992). Friendship and Fighting: A developmental approach to the study of risk and prevention of violence. Development and Psychopathology, 4, 529-558.
Sim, S. O. (2012). The effects of writing of the positive and negative experience on the self-esteem and psychological well-being. (Unpublished master's thesis). Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Korea.
Soliday, E., Garofalo, J. P., & Rogers, D. (2010). Expressive writing intervention for adolescents' somatic symptoms and mood. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 792-801.
Spera, S. P., Buhrfiend, E. D., & Pennebaker, J, W. (1994). Expressive writing and coping with job loss. The Academy of Management Journal, 37, 722-733.
Stiles, W. B. & Shapiro, D. A. (1995). Verbal exchange structure of brief psychodynamic- interpersonal and cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy. Journal of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, 63, 15-27.
Vahia, I., Chatillion, E., Kavirajan, H., & Depp, C. A. (2011). Psychological protective factors across the lifespan: Implications for psychiatry. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 34, 231-248.
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063-1070.
Weinstein, N., Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2011). Motivational determinants of integrating positive and negative past identities. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 527-544.
Wills, T. A., Vaccaro, D., & McNamara, G. (1994). Novelty seeking, risk taking, and related constructs as predictors of adolescent substance use: an application of Cloninger's theory. Journal of Substance Abuse, 6, 1-20.
Wood, J. V., Saltzberg, J. A., & Goldsamt, L. A. (1990). Does affect induce self-focused attention? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 899-908.