E-ISSN : 2733-4538
The goal of this study was to examine the effect of malingering of adult ADHD on performance patterns in a continuous performance test(CPT). And we explored effective indices were examined for detection of ADHD malingerer. We measured general performance and post-error behaviors based on the response time and accuracy while accomplishing a CPT. The CPT examined undergraduates with ADHD tendency and control, and simulated malingering groups. Specifically, the malingering groups were divided according to a general malingering group and an educated malingering group based on whether they had received education regarding ADHD. The two malingering groups were asked to perform following a scenario. In addition, the educated malingering group was provided with audio-visual information about the disorder. The main results were as follows: first, in the analysis between the ADHD tendencies and the controls, ADHD tendencies showed more commission errors than the controls. The normal controls showed a slower response time as a correct trial after error than the ADHD tendencies, and a slower response time during the recovery. Interestingly, ADHD tendencies showed shorter recovery time than normal controls. Second, in the analysis between the ADHD tendencies and the malingering groups, the malingering groups made more errors and large deviations of response time, and large deviations of performance were also observed in the post error performance. Third, in the analysis between the general malingering group and educated malingering group, the educated malingering group showed more omission errors, large deviation of response time, and more re-error during the recovery than the general malingering group. as well as a reasonable difference in commission error. Finally, discriminant analysis showed the reasonable classification rate and discriminant loading for each comparison condition. Taken together, the results of the current study may be useful in understanding the characteristics of the post-error behavior pattern of the self-monitoring process in adults with ADHD tendency and malingering groups.
Alfano, K., & Boone, K. B. (2007). The use of effort tests in the context of actual versus feigned attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and learning disability. In K. B. Boone (Ed.). In assessment of feigned cognitive impairment: A neuropsychological perspective (pp. 366-383). New York: Guilford Press.
American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorder (4th ed. rev.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
Archer, R. P., Handel, R. W., Greene, R. L., Baer, R. A., & Elkins, D. E. (2001). An evaluation of the usefulness of the MMPI-2F(p) scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 76, 282-295.
Bagby, R. M., Rogers, R., Buis, T., Nicholson, R. A., Cameron, S. L., Rector, N. A., Seeman, M. V. (1997). Detecting feigned depression and schizophrenia on the MMPI-2. Journal of Personality Assessment, 68, 650-664.
Balogh, L., & Czobor, P. (2014). Post-error slowing in patients with ADHD: A meta-analysis. Journal of Attention Disorders, DOI: 10.1177/1087054714528043.
Barkley, R. A., Fischer. M., Smallish, L., & Fletcher, K. (2006). The persistence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder into young adulthood as a function of reporting source and definition of disorder. Journal Abnormal Psychology, 111, 279-289.
Barkley, R. A., Murphy, R. R., & Fischer, M.(2008). ADHD in Adults: What the science tells us. New York: Guilford Press.
Barrett, S. P., Darredeau, C., Bordy, L. E., & Pihl, R. O. (2005). Characteristics of methylphenidate misuse in a university student sample. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 50, 457-461.
Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., & Steer, R.A. (1988). An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 893-897.
Biederman, J. (2005). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A selective overview. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1215-1220.
Biederman, J., Faraone, S. V., Spencer, T., Wilens, T., Norman, D., Lapey, K. A., Doyle,A. (1993). Patterns of psychiatric comorbidity, cognition, and psychosocial functioning in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 1792-1798.
Cheyne, J. A., Carriere, J. S. A., & Smilek, D.(2009). Absent minds and absent agents:Attention-lapse induced alienation of agency. Consciousness and Cognition, 18, 481-493.
Cheyne, J. A., Carriere, J. S. A., Solman, G. J. F., & Smilek, D. (2011). Challenge and error:Critical events and attention-related errors. Cognition, 121, 437-446.
Cho, S. H., Lee, S. J., & Kim, J. O. (2008). Comparison of malingering related characteristics between pre-trial forensic offenders determined as normal and other diagnoses: Based on MMPI-2 profiles. The Korean Journal of Social and Personality Psychology, 22, 45-58.
Cohen, A. L., & Shapiro, A. K. (2007). Exploring the performance differences on the flicker task and the Conners’ continuous performance test in adults with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 11, 49-63.
Conners, C. K., Erhart, D., & Sparrow, E. P.(1999). Conners' adult ADHD rating scales, technical manual. New York: Multi-Health Systems.
Conti, R. P. (2004). Malingered ADHD in adolescents diagnosed with conduct disorder:A brief note. Psychological Reports, 94, 987-988.
Cox, D. J., Cox. B. S., & Cox, J. (2011). Self-reported incidences of moving vehicle collisions and citations among drivers with ADHD: A cross-sectional survey across the lifespan. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 329-330.
Dutilh, G., Van Ravenzwaaij, D., Nieuwenhuis, S., Van der Mass, H. L. J., Forstmann, B. U., & Wagernmakers, E. J. (2012). How to measure post-error slowing: A confound and a simple solution. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 56, 208-216.
Faraone, S. V., Biederman, J., & Mick, E. (2006). The age-dependent decline of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A meta-analysis of follow-up studies. Psychological Medicine, 36, 159-165.
Flory, K., Molina, B. S., Pelham, W. E., Jr., Gnagy, E., & Smith, B. (2006). Childhood ADHD predicts risky sexual behavior in young adulthood. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35, 571-577.
Frazier, T. W., Frazier, A. R., Busch, R. M., Kerwood, M. A., & Demareed, H. A. (2008). Detection of simulated ADHD and reading disorder using symptom validity measures. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 23, 501-509.
Gehring, W. J., & Fencsik, D. E. (2001). Functions of the medial frontal cortex in the processing of conflict and errors. The Journal of Neuroscience, 21, 9430-9437.
Grant, L. I., & Laurence, M. B. (2000). Detecting exaggeration and malingering in neuropsychological assessment. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 15, 829-858.
Greiffenstein, M. F., Baker, W. J., & Gola, T. (1994). Validation of malingered amnesia measures with a large clinical sample. Psychological Assessment, 6, 218-224.
Groom, M. J., Cahill, J. D., Bates, A. T., Jackson, G. M., Calton, T. G., Liddle, P. F., & Hollis,C., (2010). Electrophysiological indices of abnormal error-processing in adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 66-76.
Harrison, A. G. (2006). Adults faking ADHD:You must be kidding! ADHD Report, 14, 1-7.
Harrison, A. G., Edwards, M. J., & Parker, K.C. H. (2007). Identifying students faking ADHD: Preliminary finding and strategies for Detection. Archives of Clinical Nueropsychology, 22, 577-588.
Heaton, R. K., Smith, H. H., Jr., Lehman, R. A.W., & Vogt, A. J. (1978). Prospects for faking believable deficits on neuropsychological testing. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 892-900.
Heinze, M. C., & Purisch, A. D. (2001). Beneath the mask: Use of psychological tests to detect and subtype malingering of criminal defendants. Journal of Forensic Psychology Practice, 1, 23-52.
Henry, G. K. (2005). Probable malingering and performance on the test of variables of attention. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 19, 121-129.
Herrmann, M. J., Mader, K., Schreppel, T., Jacob, C., Heine, M., Boreatti-Hummer, A., Fallgatter, A. J. (2009). Neural correlates of performance monitoring in adult patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). World Biological Psychiatry, 10, 1-8.
Houtman, F., & Notebaert, W. (2013). Blinded by an error. Cognition, 128, 228-236.
Iverson, G., & Franzen, M. D. (1996). Using multiple objective memory procedure to detect simulated malingering. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 18, 38-51.
Jang, M. J. (2004). Characteristic and educational intervention strategy of adult with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity. Journal of Education Development, 20, 43-57.
Jeong, J. Y., Chang, M. S., & Kwak, H. W.(2008). Inhibition of return and response inhibition deficits in adults with ADHD tendency. Korean Journal of Psychology: General, 27, 179-196.
Kim, H. Y., Lee, J. Y., Cho, S. S., Lee, I. S., & Kim, J. H. (2005). A preliminary study on reliability and validity of the Conners Adult ADHD Rating Scales - Korean version in college students. Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 24, 171-185.
Kim, J. A., Lee, H. S., & Park, B. K. (2003). Performance differences between traumatic brain injury subjects and malingering simulated subjects in Korean version of Benton Neuropsychological Assessment. Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 22, 231-245.
Kim, J. O., Cho, S. H., & Lee, S. J. (2009). A validation study of M-FAST (Miller-Forensic Assessment of Symptoms Test). The Korean Journal of Psychology: General, 28, 427-447.
Kim, J. Y., & Ahn, C. Y. (2003). Detection of faking on the Rorschach test. Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 22, 661-683.
Kim, Y. H., Jung, A. J., Jung, S. K., & Yoo, J.M. (2004). A study on validity of malingering scale: Focused on patient after mild head trauma. Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 23, 231-242.
Koh, S. H., Lee, Y. H., Kim, S. J., & Lim, S. Y.(2008). A study of malingering discrimination index of Rey Complex Figure Test; RCFT. Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 27, 653-667.
Kwak, H. W., & Chang, M. S. (2007). Web-based neuropsychological experiments in adults with ADHD tendency: Inhibition of return, stroop, and endogenous - exogenous attention tasks. Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 26, 1039-1055.
Kwon, S. M. (1992). Differential roles of dysfunctional attitudes and automatic thoughts in depression:An integrated cognitive model of depression. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Queensland University, Australia.
Lee, H. S., & Lim, J. H. (2011). SPSS 18.0manual. Seoul: JYPHYUNTAE.
Lee, J. K. (2011). Study of pres-trial forensic offenders with malingering based of PAI and M-FAST. The Korean Journal of Forensic Psychology, 2, 217-235.
Lee, S., Byoun, S. Chnag, M. S., & Kwak, H. W.(2015). Characteristics of post-error behavior in adult ADHD tendency. Korean Journal of Cognitive and Biological Psychology, 27, 519-542.
Lee, Y. H., & Song, J. Y. (1991). A study of the reliability and the validity of the BDI, SDS, and MMPI-D scales. Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 10, 98-113.
Lewis, J. L., Simcox, A. M., & Berry, D. T. R. (2002). Screening for feigned psychiatric symptoms in a forensic sample by using the MMPI-2 and the Structured Inventory of Malingered Symptomatology. Psychological Assessment, 14, 170-176.
McGee, R., Feehan, M., Williams, S., Partridge, F., Silva, P. A., & Kelly, J. (1990). DSM-III disorders in a large sample of adolescents. Journal of The American Academic of Child &Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 611-619.
Miller, H. A. (2001). M-FAST: Miller-Forensic Assessment of Symptoms Test professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Nada-Raja, S., Langley, J. D., McGee, R., Williams, S. M., Begg, D. J., & Reeder, A. I. (1997). Inattentive and hyperactive behaviors and driving offenses in adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 515-522.
O’Connell R. G., Bellgrove, M. A., Dockree, P. M., Lau, A., Hester, R., Garavan, H., Robertson, I. H. (2009). The neural correlates of deficient error awareness in attention - deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Nueropsychologia, 47, 1149- 1159.
Poulin, C. (2001). Medical and nonmedical stimulant use among adolescents: From sanctioned to unsanctioned use. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 165, 1039-1044.
Quinn, C. A. (2003). Detection of malingering in assessment of adult ADHD. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 18, 379-395.
Reitan, R. M. (1966). A research program in the psychological effects of brain lesions in human beings. In N. R. Ellis (Ed.), International review of research in mental retardation (pp. 153-218). New York: Academic Press.
Richards, T., Deffenbacher, J. L., Rosen L. A., Barkley, R. A., & Rodricks, T. (2006). Driving anger and driving behavior in adults with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 10, 54-64.
Rogers, R., Sewell, K. W., Martin, M. A., & Vitacco, M. J. (2003). Detection of feigned mental disorders: A meta-analysis of the MMPI-2 and malingering. Assessment, 10, 160-177.
Rosenbloom, T., & Wultz, B. (2011). Thirty-day self-reported risky driving behaviors of ADHD and non-ADHD drivers. Accident Analysis &Prevention, 43, 128-133.
Ruth, A. B., Martha, W. W., & David, T. R.(1992). Detection of underreporting of psychopathology in the MMPI: A metaanalysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 12, 509-525.
Shaffer, D. (1994). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 633-638.
Shiels K. & Hawk Jr., L. W. (2010). Self-regulation in ADHD: The role of error processing. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 951-961.
Shiels, K., Tamm, L., & Epstein, J. N. (2012). Deficient post-error slowing in children with ADHD in limited to the inattentive subtype. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 18, 612-617.
Slick, D. J., Sherman, E. M., & Iverson, G. I.(1999). Diagnostic criteria for malingered neurocognitive dysfunction: Proposed standards for clinical practice and research. Clinical Neuropsychology. 13, 545-561.
Solanto, M. V., Etefia, K., & Marks, D. J. (2004). The utility of self report measures and the continuous performance test in the diagnosis of ADHD in adult. CNS Spectrums, 9, 649-659.
Suhr, J., Hammers, D., Dobbins-Buckland, K., Zimak, E., & Hughes, C. (2008). The relationship of malingering test failure to selfreported symptoms and neuropsychological findings in adults referred for ADHD evaluation. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 23, 521-530.
Tucha, L., Sontag, T. A., & Walitza, S. (2009). Detection of malingered attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. ADHD, 1, 47-53.
Wiersema, J. R., Van der Meere, J. J., & Roeyers,H. (2009). ERP correlates of error monitoring in adult ADHD. Journal of Neural Transmission, 116, 371-379.
Wilens, T. E., Kwon, A., Tanguay, S., Chase, R., Moore, H., Faraone, S. V., & Biederman, J.(2005). Characteristics of adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder plus substance use disorder: The role of psychiatric comorbidity. The American Journal on Addictions, 14, 319-327.
Wilson, J. J., & Levin, F. R. (2001). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder(ADHD) and substance use disorders. Current Psychiatry Reports, 3, 497-506.
Young, J. C., & Gross, A. M. (2011). Detection of response bias and noncredible performance in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 26, 165-175.