E-ISSN : 2733-4538
Distress is an unpleasant emotional experience that may interfere with the ability to cope effectively with cancer. Distress can range from normal emotional responses, such as sadness and fear, to psychopathological states that damage psychosocial functioning, such as depression, anxiety, panic, social withdrawal, and existential crisis. It is reported that approximately 35– 45% of cancer patients experience clinically significant levels of distress, and the distress continues after treatment. Currently, about 1.74 million cancer patients and survivors live in Korea. Over the past 10 years, the survival rate has increased by 1.3 times and will most likely continue to increase. Although interest in cancer patients’ psychological difficulties and awareness of the need for psychological interventions are increasing, rarely is distress management provided by clinical psychologists in integrative cancer care systems. This comprehensive review aimed to explore 1) the concept of distress in cancer patients, 2) the basic model and principles of distress management, 3) available distress screening and assessment tools, and 4) current status of distress management and its clinical applications in Korea. Further, we discussed the roles of clinical psychologists and researchers in oncological settings in optimizing distress management in cancer patients.
Andrykowski, M. A., & Manne, S. L. (2006). Are psychological interventions effective and accepted by cancer patients? I. Standards and levels of evidence. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 32, 93-97.
Baek, H., Kang, E., Lee, A. S., Hwang, E., Chae, S., Kim, E. K., & Kim, S. W. (2017). Distress screening and management in early breast cancer patients: Distress after breast cancer diagnosis and associated factors. Journal of Breast Disease, 5, 8-15.
Baker, P., Beesley, H., Dinwoodie, R., Fletcher, I., Ablett, J., Holcombe, C., & Salmon, P. (2013). ‘You’re putting thoughts into my head’:A qualitative study of the readiness of patients with breast, lung or prostate cancer to address emotional needs through the first 18 months after diagnosis. Psycho-Oncology, 22, 1402-1410.
Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., & Steer, R. A. (1988). An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 893-897.
Beck, A. T., Ward, C. H., Mendelson, M., Mock, J., & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4, 561-571.
Bennett, B., Goldstein, D., Lloyd, A., Davenport, T., & Hickie, I. (2004). Fatigue and psychological distress–exploring the relationship in women treated for breast cancer. European Journal of Cancer, 40, 1689-1695.
Berard, R. M. F., Boermeester, F., & Viljoen, G. (1998). Depressive disorders in an out-patient oncology setting: Prevalence, assessment and management. Psycho-Oncology, 7, 112-120.
Bogaarts, M. P., Den Oudsten, B. L., Roukema, J. A., Van Riel, J. M., Beerepoot, L. V., & De Vries, J. (2011). Development of the Psychosocial Distress Questionnaire—Breast Cancer (PDQ-BC): A breast cancer-specific screening instrument for psychosocial problems. Supportive Care in Cancer, 19, 1485-1493.
Bruera, E., Kuehn, N., Miller, M. J., Selmser, P., & Macmillan, K. (1991). The Edmonton Symptom Assessment System (ESAS): A single method for the assessment of palliative care patients. Journal of Palliative Care, 7, 6-9.
Bultz, B. D., & Carlson, L. E. (2006). Emotional distress: The sixth vital sign-future directions in cancer care. Psycho-Oncology, 15, 93-95.
Bultz, B. D., & Johansen, C. (2011). Screening for distress, the 6th vital sign: Where are we, and where are we going? Psycho-Oncology, 20, 569-571.
Carlson, L. E., Angen, M., Cullum, J., Goodey, E., Koopmans, J., Lamont, L., . . . Bultz, B. D. (2004). High levels of untreated distress and fatigue in cancer patients. British Journal of Cancer, 90, 2297-2304.
Cho, J. H., & Seo, K. S. (2011). Effect of group psychotherapy for promotion of hope on positive emotion in cancer patients. The Journal of Korean Oriental Medicine, 32, 95-102.
Cho, Y. W., Song, M. L., & Morin, C. M. (2014). Validation of a Korean version of the Insomnia Severity Index. Journal of Clinical Neurology, 10, 210-215.
Choi, H. S., Choi, J. H., Park, K. H., Joo, K. J., Ga, H., Ko, H. J., & Kim, S. R. (2007) Standardization of the Korean version of Patient Health Questionnaire-9 as a screening instrument for major depressive disorder. Journal of the Korean Academy of Family Medicine, 28, 114-119.
Chun, J. H., Byun, M. K., Sim, S. M., & Lee, H. H. (2012). A study on the healing and development of reality therapy program for hospice. Journal of Naturopathy, 1, 55-64.
Chun, S. Y., Shim. E. J., Hwang, J. W., & Hahm, B. J. (2010). Prevalence of distress and its influence on quality of life in breast cancer patients. Korean Journal of Psychosomatic Medicine, 18, 72-81.
Clarke, D. M., McKenzie, D. P., Marshall, R. J., & Smith, G. C. (1994). The construction of a brief case-finding instrument for depression in the physically ill. Integrative Psychiatry, 10, 117-123.
Cleeland, C. S., Zhao, F., Chang, V. T., Sloan, J. A., O’mara, A. M., Gilman, P. B., . . . Fisch, M. J. (2013). The symptom burden of cancer: Evidence for a core set of cancer‐related and treatmentrelated symptoms from the eastern cooperative oncology group symptom outcomes and practice patterns study. Cancer, 119, 4333-4340.
Clover, K. A., Mitchell, A. J., Britton, B., & Carter, G. (2015). Why do oncology outpatients who report emotional distress decline help? Psycho-Oncology, 24, 812-818.
Cordova, M. J., Riba, M. B., & Spiegel, D. (2017). Post-traumatic stress disorder and cancer. The Lancet Psychiatry, 4, 330-338.
Cox, J. L., Holden, J. M., & Sagovsky, R. (1987). Detection of postnatal depression: Development of the 10-item Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 782-786.
Derogatis, L. R., Lipman, R. S., & Covi, L. (1973). SCL-90: An outpatient psychiatric rating scale – preliminary report. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 9, 13-28.
Dilworth, S., Higgins, I., Parker, V., Kelly, B., & Turner, J. (2014). Patient and health professional’s perceived barriers to the delivery of psychosocial care to adults with cancer: A systematic review. Psycho-Oncology, 23, 601-612.
Duffy, J. D., & Valentine, A. D. (2011). MD Anderson manual of psychosocial oncology. Houston, TX: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Enns, A., Waller, A., Groff, S. L., Bultz, B. D., Fung, T., & Carlson, L. E. (2013). Risk factors for continuous distress over a 12-month period in newly diagnosed cancer outpatients. Journal of Psychosocial Oncology, 31, 489-506.
Eun, H. J., Kwon, T. W., Lee, S. M., Kim, T. H., Choi, M. R., & Cho, S. J. (2005). A study on reliability and validity of the Korean version of Impact of Event Scale-Revised. Journal of Korean Neuropsychiatric Association, 44, 303-310.
Faller, H., Bülzebruck, H., Drings, P., & Lang, H. (1999). Coping, distress, and survival among patients with lung cancer. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 756-762.
Fallowfield, L., Ratcliffe, D., Jenkins, V., & Saul, J. (2001). Psychiatric morbidity and its recognition by doctors in patients with cancer. British Journal of Cancer, 84, 1011-1015.
Gopalan, M. R., Karunakaran, V., Prabhakaran, A., & Jayakumar, K. L. (2016). Prevalence of psychiatric morbidity among cancer patients – hospital-based, cross-sectional survey. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 58, 275-280.
Ha, E. H., Lee, S. H., Yu, E. S., Kim, J. H., Ro, J. S., Kang, H. S., & Lee, K. S. (2011). The relationships between hwa-byung and depressive disorder in breast cancer patients. The Korean Journal of Woman Psychology, 16, 115-133.
Han, C., Jo, S. A., Kwak, J. H., Pae, C. U., Steffens, D., Jo, I., & Park, M. H. (2008). Validation of the Patient Health Questionnaire-9Korean version in the elderly population: The Ansan geriatric study. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 49, 218-223.
Han, C., Joo, S. H., Chae, J. H., Lee, C. U., & Kim, T. S. (2017). Feasibility of psychosocial distress screening and management program for hospitalized cancer patients. Psychiatry Investigation, 14, 734-745.
Han, D. W., Lee, J. H., & Jeon, K. G. (1996). Development of Spielberger’s State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, STAI-Y. Korean Journal of Health Psychology, 1, 1-14.
Head, B. A., Schapmire, T. J., Keeney, C. E., Deck, S. M., Studts, J. L., Hermann, C. P., . . . Pfeifer, M. P. (2012). Use of the distress thermometer to discern clinically relevant quality of life differences in women with breast cancer. Quality of Life Research, 21, 215-223.
Hegel, M. T., Collins, E. D., Kearing, S., Gillock, K. L., Moore, C. P., & Ahles, T. A. (2008). Sensitivity and specificity of the distress thermometer for depression in newly diagnosed breast cancer patients. Psycho-Oncology, 17, 556-560.
Herschbach, P., Keller, M., Knight, L., Brandl, T., Huber, B., Henrich, G., & Marten-Mittag, B. (2004). Psychological problems of cancer patients: A cancer distress screening with a cancer-specific questionnaire. British Journal of Cancer, 91, 504-511.
Holland, J. C., & Alici, Y. (2010). Management of distress in cancer patients. The Journal of Supportive Oncology, 8, 4-12.
Hutchison, S. D., Steginga, S. K., & Dunn, J. (2006). The tiered model of psychosocial intervention in cancer: A community based approach. Psycho-Oncology, 15, 541-546.
Irwin, M. R. (2013). Depression and insomnia in cancer: Prevalence, risk factors, and effects on cancer outcomes. Current Psychiatry Reports, 15, 404-416.
Jang, E. H., Choi, K. S., & Kwon, S. J. (2013). A meta-analysis of intervention on depression in cancer patients. Asian Oncology Nursing, 13, 1-10.
Jang, S. H., Lee, D. B., Choi, U. J., Lee, K. M., & Lee, S. Y. (2013). A study of the depressive symptoms and the quality of life in patients with breast cancer in a university hospital. Korean Journal of Psychosomatic Medicine, 21, 11-17.
Jang, S. J. (2013). Effects on meditation program on power, anxiety, depression and quality of life in women with breast cancer. Journal of Korean Academy of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 22, 205-215.
Jefford, M., Mileshkin, L., Richards, K., Thomson, J., Matthews, J. P., Zalcberg, J., . . . Clarke, D. M. (2004). Rapid screening for depression–validation of the Brief Case-Find for Depression (BCD) in medical oncology and palliative care patients. British Journal of Cancer, 91, 900-906.
Jeon, G. G., & Lee, M. K. (1992). Preliminary development of Korean version of CES-D. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 11, 65-76.
Ju, Y. H., Kim, Y. H., & Kim, J. H. (2018). Distress and quality of life in patients with esophageal cancer. Asian Oncology Nursing, 18, 40-46.
Jun, C., Min, J. A., Ma, J. Y., Song, K. Y., Lyoo, I. K., Lee, C. U., . . . Kim, T. S. (2012). Prevalence and associated risk factors of psychological distress in patients with gastric cancer. Korean Journal of Psychosomatic Medicine, 20, 82-90.
Jung, I. K., Kwak, D. I., Shin, D. K., Lee, M. S., Lee, H. S., & Kim, J. Y. (1997). A reliability and validity study of geriatric depression scale. Journal of Korean Neuropsychiatric Association, 36, 103-112.
Kang, K. A., Han, S. J., Kim, S. J., & Lim, Y. S. (2018). An integrative review of meaning-centered intervention studies for patients with advanced or terminal cancer. Asian Oncology Nursing, 18, 173-187.
Kang, Y. S., Kwon, I. S., & Hong, E. (2016). The effects of integrated intervention program for community dwelling in cancer patients’quality of life, depression and self care agency. Journal of Korean Public Health Nursing, 30, 445-455.
Kim, G. M., Kim, S. J., Song, S. K., Kim, H. R., Kang, B. D., Noh, S. H., . . . Rha, S. Y. (2017). Prevalence and prognostic implications of psychological distress in patients with gastric cancer. BMC Cancer, 17, 283-290.
Kim, J., Youn, S., Choi, B., Jung, K. H., Ahn, S. D., Hwang, S. Y., . . . Lee, J. (2018). Psychological distress and drawing tests among women with breast cancer. Journal of Korean Medical Science, 33, e140.
Kim, J. H.(Ed). Introduction to Psycho-oncology. Goyang: National Cancer Center. 2019.
Kim, J. H., Seok, J. H., Jon, D. I., Hong, H. J., Hong, N., Kim, S. J., . . . Kim, L. S. (2008). Psychological characteristics of patients with depressive symptoms at the initial diagnosis of breast cancer:Preliminary results. Journal of Breast Cancer, 11, 83-88.
Kim, J. N., & Lee, R. (2008). A review of research on the psychosocial interventions for the cancer patients. Korean Journal of Health Psychology, 13, 329-357.
Kim, K. I., Kim, J. H., & Won, H. T. (1985). Symptom Checklist-90manual. Joong-ang Research Center.
Kim, S. Y., Kim, J. M., Kim, S. W., Shin, I. S., Yoon, J. S., & Shim, H. J. (2010). Management of depression in terminally ill cancer patients. Korean Journal of Psychopharmacology, 21, 51-61.
Kim, Y. J., & Seo, N. S. (2010). Effects of progressive muscle relaxation on nausea, vomiting, fatigue, anxiety, and depression in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy. Journal of Korean Oncology Nursing, 10, 171-179.
Kim, Y. K., Won, S. D., Lim, H. J., Choi, S. H., Lee, S. M., Shin, Y. C., & Kim, K. H. (2005). Validation of the Korean version of Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (K-EPDS). Journal of Korean Society for Depression and Bipolar Disorders, 3, 42-49.
Koenig, H. G., Cohen, H. J., Blazer, D. G., Pieper, C., Meador, K. G., Shelp, F., . . . DiPasquale, B. (1992). Religious coping and depression among elderly, hospitalized medically ill men. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 1693-1700.
Kuhnt, S., Brähler, E., Faller, H., Härter, M., Keller, M., Schulz, H., . . . Mehnert, A. (2016). Twelve-month and lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in cancer patients. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 85, 289-296.
Kwon, J. H., Nam, S. H., Koh, S., Hong, Y. S., Lee, K. H., Shin, S. W., . . . Bruera, E. (2013). Validation of Edmonton symptom assessment system in Korean cancer patients. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 46, 947-956.
Kwon, S. J. (2015). Symptom Checklist II (KSCL-95) manual. Seoul:Joong-ang Research Center.
Kwon, S. M. (1992). Differential roles of dysfunctional attitude and automatic thoughts in depression: An integrated cognitive model of depression (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.
Lazenby, M., Tan, H., Pasacreta, N., Ercolano, E., & McCorkle, R. (2015). The five steps of comprehensive psychosocial distress screening. Current Oncology Reports, 17, 447-454.
Lee, B. K. (2013). The effects of Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program on pain and anxiety in cancer patients. Korean Journal of Stress Research, 21, 263-274.
Lee, J. H., Kim, T. S., Ko, Y. H., Yoon, S. J., Lyoo, I. K., Jun, T. Y., & Lee, C. (2009). The standardization of the Korean version of Brief Edinburgh Depression Scale as a screening tool for depression in cancer patients. Korean Journal of Biological Psychiatry, 16, 112-120.
Lee, M. A., Huh, H. J., Min, J. A., Lee, C. U., Lee, C., & Kim, T. S. (2013). Point prevalence of anxiety and depression among cancer inpatients in a general hospital: A preliminary study for the development of distress management strategies in cancer patients. Korean Journal of Psychosomatic Medicine, 21, 122-131.
Lee, S. H., & Kim, H. (2018). Insomnia in patients with hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). Journal of Korean Society of Biological Therapies in Psychiatry, 24, 142-155.
Lee, S. S., Rim, H. D., Won, S. H., & Woo, J. (2018). Avoidant insecure attachment as a predictive factor for psychological distress in patients with early breast cancer: A preliminary 1-year followup study. Psychiatry Investigation, 15, 805-810.
Lee, Y. H., & Song, J. Y. (1991). A study of the reliability and the validity of the BDI, SDS, and MMPI-D scales. The Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 10, 98-113.
Lim, S. Y., Lee, E. J., Jeong, S. W., Kim, H. C., Jeong, C. H., Jeon, T. Y., . . . Kim, J. B. (2011). The validation study of Beck Depression Scale 2 in Korean version. Anxiety and Mood, 7, 48-53.
Linden, W., Vodermaier, A., MacKenzie, R., & Greig, D. (2012). Anxiety and depression after cancer diagnosis: Prevalence rates by cancer type, gender, and age. Journal of Affective Disorders, 141, 343-351.
Lloyd-Williams, M., Friedman, T., & Rudd, N. (2000). Criterion validation of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale as a screening tool for depression in patients with advanced metastatic cancer. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 20, 259-265.
Luckett, T., Butow, P. N., King, M. T., Oguchi, M., Heading, G., Hackl, N. A., . . . Price, M. A. (2010). A review and recommendations for optimal outcome measures of anxiety, depression and general distress in studies evaluating psychosocial interventions for English-speaking adults with heterogeneous cancer diagnoses. Supportive Care in Cancer, 18, 1241-1262.
McCarter, K., Britton, B., Baker, A. L., Halpin, S. A., Beck, A. K., Carter, G., . . . Wolfenden, L. (2018). Interventions to improve screening and appropriate referral of patients with cancer for psychosocial distress: Systematic review. BMJ Open, 8, e017959.
Mehnert, A., Hartung, T. J., Friedrich, M., Vehling, S., Brähler, E., Härter, M., . . . Faller, H. (2018). One in two cancer patients is significantly distressed: Prevalence and indicators of distress. Psycho‐Oncology, 27, 75-82.
Meijer, A., Roseman, M., Delisle, V. C., Milette, K., Levis, B., Syamchandra, A., . . . Thombs, B. D. (2013). Effects of screening for psychological distress on patient outcomes in cancer: A systematic review. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 75, 1-17.
Ministry of Health and Welfare. (2009). Development of recommendation for distress management toward improvement of quality of life in cancer patients (The National R&D Program for Cancer Control Report No.0830690-1).
Mitchell, A. J. (2008). Are one or two simple questions sufficient to detect depression in cancer and palliative care? A Bayesian metaanalysis. British Journal of Cancer, 98, 1934-1943.
Mitchell, A. J., Baker-Glenn, E. A., Granger, L., & Symonds, P. (2010). Can the distress thermometer be improved by additional mood domains? Part I. Initial validation of the emotional thermometers tool. Psycho-Oncology, 19, 125-133.
Mitchell, A. J., Chan, M., Bhatti, H., Halton, M., Grassi, L., Johansen, C., & Meader, N. (2011). Prevalence of depression, anxiety, and adjustment disorder in oncological, hematological, and palliative-care settings: A meta-analysis of 94 interview-based studies. The Lancet Oncology, 12, 160-174.
Mitchell, A. J., & Coyne J. C. (2007). Do ultra-short screening instruments accurately detect depression in primary care? A pooled analysis and meta-analysis of 22 studies. British Journal of General Practice, 57, 144-151.
Mitchell, A. J., Kaar, S., Coggan, C., & Herdman, J. (2008). Acceptability of common screening methods used to detect distress and related mood disorders-preferences of cancer specialist and non-specialist. Psycho-Oncology, 17, 226-236.
National Comprehensive Cancer Network, Distress management: Clinical practice guidelines in oncology(2005). Version 1.2005. Available online at: www.nccn.org/
Oh, P. J. (2008). The effects of spirituality/hope promoting programs on fighting spirit, helplessness, anxiety, and self-care in people with cancer. Korean Journal of Adult Nursing, 20, 65-76.
Oh, P. J., & Jang, E. S. (2014). Effects of psychosocial interventions on cortisol and immune parameters in patients with cancer: A meta-analysis. Journal of Korean Academy of Nursing, 44, 446-457.
Oh, P. J., & Lee, E. A. (2013). Cognitive behavioral therapy for psychological distress, self-care and quality of life in patients with cancer: A meta-analysis. Korean Journal of Adult Nursing, 25, 377-388.
Oh, S. M., Min, K. J., & Park, D. B. (1999). A study on the standardization of the hospital anxiety and depression scale for Koreans –A comparison of normal, depressed and anxious groups. Journal of Korean Neuropsychiatric Association, 38, 289-295.
Oh, S. T., Lee, S., Lee, H., Chang, M. H., Hong, S., & Choi, W. J. (2017). Reflection of pain in cancer patients using a new screening tool for psychological distress. Korean Journal of Psychosomatic Medicine, 25, 56-62.
Ok, O. N., Nam, M. S., Yi, M. S., Cho, S. M., Kim, E. J., Ham, Y. H., & Kwon, I. G. (2017). Effects of telephone counseling support on distress, anxiety, depression, and adverse events in cancer patients receiving chemotherapy. Asian Oncology Nursing, 17, 37-44.
Park, E. Y., Bae, Y. T., Lee, J. Y., Seo, H. I., Moon, E. S., & Jung, Y. J. (2011). Depressive symptom-related factors in patients with breast cancer. Journal of Breast Cancer, 14, S64-69.
Park, E. Y., & Yi, M. (2012). Development and effectiveness of expressive writing program for women with breast cancer in Korea. Journal of Korean Academy of Nursing, 42, 269-279.
Park, J. H., Bae, S. H., Chun, M., Jung, Y. S., & Jung, Y. M. (2015). Factors influencing elevated distress scores at the end of primary treatment of breast cancer. Asian Oncology Nursing, 15, 132-139.
Park, J. H., Chun, M. S., Jung, Y. S., & Bae, S. H. (2017). Predictors of psychological distress trajectories in the first year after a breast cancer diagnosis. Asian Nursing Research, 11, 268-275.
Park, J. H., Chun, M. S., Jung, Y. S., Bae. S. H., & Jung, Y. M. (2018). Psychoeducational approach to distress management of newly diagnosed patients with breast cancer. Journal of Korean Academy of Nursing Association, 48, 669-678.
Park, J. I., Kim, Y. J., & Cho, M. J. (2012). Factor structure of the 12-item general health questionnaire in the Korean general adult population. Journal of Korean Neuropsychiatric Association, 51, 178-184.
Park, J. S., & Oh, Y. J. (2010). The effects of psychosocial intervention on depression, hope and quality of life of home-based cancer patients. Journal of Korean Academy of Adult Nursing, 22, 594-605.
Park, J. S., & Oh, Y. J. (2012). Development and evaluation of the psychosocial distress nursing intervention for patients with gynecological cancer. Korean Journal of Adult Nursing, 24, 219-231.
Park, K., Jun, J. S., & Jung, S. Y. (2013). The effects of Korean Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction program on the psychological symptoms, sleep and quality of life, in Korea breast cancer patients. Korean Journal of Stress Research, 21, 249-262.
Park, K. P., Woo, S. W., & Jang, M. S. (2012). Validational study of Brief Symptoms Inventory-18 (BSI-18) in college students. Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 31, 507-521.
Park, S. H., Choi, H. Y., Lim, W. J, Moon, B. I., & Lim, W. S. (2017). An anxiety, depressed mood, and insomnia in newly diagnosed women breast cancer patients and thyroid cancer patients. Korean Journal of Biological Psychiatry, 24, 204-211.
Park, Y. S., Han, K. J., Hah, Y. S., Song, M. S., Kim, S. J., Chung, C. W., . . . Hwang, S. W. (2008). Effects of telephone counseling on health and service satisfaction after discharge in gynecologic cancer women. Journal of Korean Academic Society of Nursing Education, 14, 294-304.
Parker, P. A., Baile, W. F., de Moor, C. D., & Cohen, L. (2003). Psychosocial and demographic predictors of quality of life in a large sample of cancer patients. Psycho-Oncology, 12, 183-193.
Pascoe, S., Edelman, S., & Kidman, A. (2000). Prevalence of psychosocial distress and use of support services by cancer patients at Sydney hospitals. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 34, 785-791.
Ploos van Amstel, F. K., van den Berg, S. W., van Laarhoven, H. W., Gielissen, M. F., Prins, J. B., & Ottevanger, P. B. (2013). Distress screening remains important during follow-up after primary breast cancer treatment. Support Care Cancer, 21, 2107-2115.
Prieto, J. M., Blanch, J., Atala, J., Carreras, E., Rovira, M., Cirera, E., & Gasto, C. (2002). Psychiatric morbidity and impact on hospital length of stay among hematologic cancer patients receiving stem-cell transplantation. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 20, 1907-1917.
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385-401.
Roth, A. J., Kornblith, A. B., Bate-Copel, L., Peabody, E., Scher, H. I., & Holland, J. C. (1998). Rapid screening for psychologic distress in men with prostate carcinoma. Cancer, 82, 1904-1908.
Ryu, J. S., Choi, S. W., Yun, S. S., Koo, B. H., Choi, I. S., Kim, S. J., . . . Yoon, D. S. (2018). Preliminary findings on the effectiveness of meaning-centered psychotherapy in patients with pancreatobiliary cancer. Yonsei Medical Journal, 59, 1107-1114.
Schroevers, M. J., Sanderman, R., Van Sonderen, E., & Ranchor, A. V. (2000). The evaluation of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CES-D) scale: Depressed and positive affect in cancer patients and healthy reference subjects. Quality of Life Research, 9, 1015-1029.
Seo, K. S., Cho, C. K., Son, C. G., Cho, J. H., & Yoo, H. S. (2008). Effect of group psychotherapy for promotion of hope on anxiety, depression, and quality of life in cancer patients. Journal of Korean Oriental Medicine, 29, 39-46.
Seok, J. H., Choi, W. J., Lee, Y. S., Park, C. S., Oh, Y. J., Kim, J. S., & Chang, H. S. (2013). Relationship between negative mental adjustment to cancer and distress in thyroid cancer patients. Yonsei Medical Journal, 54, 658-664.
Shim, E. J., Hahm, B. J., Yu, E. S., Kim, H. K., Cho, S. J., Chang, S. M., . . . Kim, J. H. (2017). Development and validation of the National Cancer Center Psychological Symptom Inventory. Psycho‐Oncology, 26, 1036-1043.
Shim, E. J., Hahm, B. J., Yu, E. S., Kim, H. K., Cho, S. J., Chang, S. M., . . . Kim, J. H. (2018). Prevalence, correlates, and impact of depressive and anxiety disorder in cancer: Findings from a multicenter study. Palliative & Supportive Care, 16, 552-565.
Shim, E. J., Mehnert, A., Koyama, A., Cho, S. J., Inui, H., Paik, N. S., & Koch, U. (2006). Health-related quality of life in breast cancer:A cross-cultural survey of German, Japanese, and South Korean patients. Breast Cancer Research and Treatment, 99, 341-350.
Shim, E. J., & Park, J. H. (2012). Suicidality and its associated factors in cancer patients: Results of a multi-center study in Korea. The International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 43, 381-403.
Shim, E. J., Shin, Y. W., Jeon, H. J., & Hahm, B. J. (2008). Distress and its correlates in Korean cancer patients: Pilot use of the distress thermometer and the problem list. Psycho-Oncology, 17, 548-555.
SÖllner, W., DeVries, A., Steixner, E., Lukas, P., Sprinzl, G., Rumpold, G., & Maislinger, S. (2001). How successful are oncologists in identifying patient distress, perceived social support, and need for psychosocial counseling? British Journal of Cancer, 84, 179-185.
Spielberger, C. D. (1983). Manual for the State-Trait-Anxiety Inventory:STAI (form Y). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Traeger, L., Cannon, S., Keating, N. L., Pirl, W. F., Lathan, C., Martin, M. Y., . . . Park, E. R. (2014). Race by sex differences in depression symptoms and psychosocial service use among non-Hispanic black and white patients with lung cancer. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 32, 107-113.
Vignaroli, E., Pace, E. A., Willey, J., Palmer, J. L., Zhang, T., & Bruera, E. (2006) The Edmonton symptom assessment system as a screening tool for depression and anxiety. Journal of Palliative Medicine, 9, 296-303.
Vodermaier, A., Linden, W., & Siu, C. (2009). Screening for emotional distress in cancer patients: A systematic review of assessment instruments. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 101, 1464-1488.
Waller, A., Williams, A., Groff, S. L., Bultz, B. D., & Carlson, L. E. (2013). Screening for distress, the sixth vital sign: Examining selfreferral in people with cancer over a one-year period. Psycho-Oncology, 22, 388-395.
Watson, M., Haviland, J. S., Greer, S., Davidson, J., & Bliss, J. M. (1999). Influence of psychological response on survival in breast cancer: A population-based cohort study. Lancet, 354, 1331-1336.
Yi, J. S., Bae, S. O., Ahn, Y. M., Park, D. B., Noh, K. S., Shin, H. K., . . . Kim, Y. S. (2005). Validity and reliability of the Korean version of the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (K-HDRS). Journal of Korean Neuropsychiatric Association, 44, 456-465.
Yi, M. S., Kim, J. H., Park, E. Y., Kim, J. N., & Yu, E. S. (2010). Focus group study on psychosocial distress of cancer patients. Journal of Korean Academy of Adult Nursing, 22, 19-30.
Yoo, H., Boo, S., Chun, M., & Jo, E. M. (2015). The effect of a community-based self-management program for patients at thyroid cancer-diagnosis stage: A pilot study. Journal of Korean Public Health Nursing, 29, 582-593.
Yoo, M. S., Lee, H., & Yoon, J. A. (2009). Effects of a cognitive-behavioral nursing intervention on anxiety and depression in women with breast cancer and undergoing radiotherapy. Journal of Korean Academy of Nursing, 39, 157-165.
Yoon, H., Kim, Y., Choi, K., Lim, Y. O., Nam, I., Kim, W., & Ham, H. (2018). The effectiveness of problem-solving therapy program intervention in reducing depression of older cancer patients. Korean Journal of Health Promotion, 18, 60-70.
Yu, E. S., Shim, E. J., Kim, H. K., Hahm, B. J., Park, J. H., & Kim, J. H. (2012). Development of guidelines for distress management in Korean cancer patients. Psycho-Oncology, 21, 541-549.
Zabora, J., BrintzenhofeSzoc, K., Curbow, B., Hooker, C., & Piantadosi, S. (2001). The prevalence of psychological distress by cancer site. Psycho-Oncology, 10, 19-28.
Zigmond, A. S., & Snaith, R. P. (1983). The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 67, 361-370.