E-ISSN : 2733-4538
Both automatic and controlled processes can be observed in sequence by manipulating the stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) using the priming paradigm. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of activating an episodic trauma memory on self-regulation by using the naming task, a type of semantic and emotional priming task. In the naming task, the primed stimuli were three types of words including specific foreign, specific domestic and general trauma events, and the target stimuli were three kinds of emotion words classified by the levels of affective valence and activation. Three experiments were carried out. The participants in Experiment 1 (n=60) with 150ms SOA and Experiment 2 (n=57) with 1,000 ms SOA were college students. The participants in Experiment 3 (n=57), which used both 150 ms and 1,000 ms SOAs, were patients being treated at psychiatric outpatient clinics after exposure to traumatic events. The results showed that the reaction times in the non-clinical group were more delayed (i.e., reversed priming effect) when using the domestic (e.g., Sewol ferry) or general (e.g., violence) trauma events as primed stimuli and the negative emotion words of high-arousal (e.g., fear or anger) as target stimuli when compared to the other experimental conditions. But, the clinical group exposed to the 1,000 ms SOA condition showed facilitation and reversed priming effects when being presented with negative emotion words of high-arousal as target stimuli after priming with domestic and foreign traumatic events, respectively. These results were discussed in terms of the autobiographical memory and automatic emotion regulation seen in posttraumatic stress disorder. Limitations of this study and suggestions for further research were also discussed.
Ahn, H. N., & Joo, H. S. (2012). The characteristics of autobiographical trauma memory organization associated with posttraumatic stress disorder. Korean Journal of Psychology: General, 31, 197-220.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.
An, J. Y., Seo, E. R., Lim, K. H., Shin, J. H., & Kim, J. B. (2013). Standardization of the Korean version of screening tool for depression (Patient Health Questionnaire-9, PHQ-9). Journal of the Korean Society of Biological Therapies in Psychiatry, 19, 47-56.
Balota, D. A., & Lorch, R. F. (1986). Depth of automatic spreading activation: Mediated priming effects in pronunciation but not in lexical decision. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 12, 336-345.
Bargh, J. A., Chaiken, S., Raymond, P., & Hymes, C. (1996). The automatic evaluation effect: Unconditionally automatic attitude activation with a pronunciation task. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 32, 104-128.
Berntsen, D. (2009). Involuntary autobiographical memories: An introduction to the unbidden past. Cambridge, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Berntsen, D. (2010). The unbidden past: Involuntary autobiographical memories as a basic mode of remembering. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19, 138-142.
Berntsen, D., & Rubin, D. C. (2006). The centrality of event scale:A measure of integrating a trauma into one’s identity and its relation to post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 219-231.
Berntsen, D., & Rubin, D. C. (2007). When a trauma becomes a key to identity: Enhanced integration of trauma memories predicts posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21, 417-431.
Blanchard, E. B., Hickling, E. J., Taylor, A. E., Loos, W. R., & Gerardi, R. J. (1994). Psychological morbidity associated with motor vehicle accidents. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32, 283-290.
Bless, H., & Burger, A. M. (2016). A closer look at social psychologists’silver bullet: Inevitable and evitable side effects of the experimental approach. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11, 296-308.
Brewin, C. R. (2014). Episodic memory, perceptual memory, and their interaction: Foundations for a theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 69-97. doi: 10.1037/a0033722
Brewin, C. R., Dalgleish, T., & Joseph, S. (1996). A dual representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Review, 103, 670-686.
Brewin, C. R., Gregory, J. D., Lipton, M., & Burgess N. (2010). Intrusive images in psychological disorders: Characteristics, neural mechanisms, and treatment implications. Psychological Review, 117, 210-232.
Brown, A. D., Addis, D. R., Romano, T. A., Marmar, C. R., Bryant, R. A., Hirst, W., & Schacter, D. L. (2014). Episodic and semantic components of autobiographical memories and imagined future events in post-traumatic stress disorder. Memory, 22, 595-604.
Brown, A., Kouri, N., Joscelyne, A., Marmar, C., & Bryant, R. (2015). Experimentally examining the role of self-identity and autobiographical memory in posttraumatic stress disorder. In L. Watson & D. Berntsen (Eds.), Clinical perspectives on autobiographical memory (pp. 316-334). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Cho, M. S., & Lee, Y. H. (2011). A validation study of the Centrality of Event Scale-Korean version. The Korean Journal of Psychology:General, 30, 763-774.
Choi, Y. K. (2017). Evidence-based treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 36, 526-549.
Chon, K. K., Choi, S. C., & Yang, B. C. (2001). Integrated adaptation of CES-D in Korea. Korean Journal of Health Psychology, 6, 59-76.
Cloitre, M., Cohen, L. R., & Koenen, K. (2002). Skills training in affective and interpersonal regulation followed by exposure: A phase-based treatment for PTSD related to childhood abuse. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 1067-1074.
Cloitre, M., Miranda, R., Stovall-McClough, K. C., & Han, H. (2005). Beyond PTSD: Emotion regulation and interpersonal problems as predictors of functional impairment in survivors of childhood abuse. Behavior Therapy, 36, 119-124.
Collins, A. M., & Loftus, E. E. (1975). A spreading-activation theory of semantic processing. Psychological Review, 82, 407-426.
Conway, M. A. (1996). Autobiographical knowledge and autobiographical memories. In D. C. Rubin (Ed.), Remembering our past:Studies in autobiographical memory (pp. 67-93). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Conway, M. A. (2005). Memory and the self. Journal of Memory and Language, 53, 594–628.
Conway, M. A., & Holmes, A. (2004). Psychosocial stages and the accessibility of autobiographical memories across the life cycle. Journal of Personality, 72, 461-480.
Conway, M. A., & Pleydell-Pearce, C. W. (2000). The construction of autobiographical memories in the self-memory system. Psychological Review, 107, 261-288.
Crespo, M., & Fernández-Lansac, V. (2016). Memory and narrative of traumatic events: A literature review. Psychological Trauma:Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 8, 149-156.
Cukor, J., Wyka, K., Jayasinghe, N., & Difede, J. (2010). The nature and course of subthreshold PTSD. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24, 918-923.
De Houwer, J., Hermans, D., & Spruyt, A. (2001). Affective priming of pronunciation responses: Effects of target degradation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 85-91.
Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 319-345.
Etkin, A., Egner, T., Peraza, D. M., Kandel, E. R., & Hirsch, J. (2006). Resolving emotional conflict: A role for the rostral anterior cingulate cortex in modulating activity in the amygdala. Neuron, 51, 871-882.
Eun, H. J., Kwon, T. W., Lee, S. M., Kim, T. H., Choi, M. R., & Cho, S. J. (2005). A study on reliability and validity of the Korean version of Impact of Event Scale-Revised. Journal of Korean Neuropsychiatric Association, 44, 303-310.
Fazio, R. H., Sanbonmatsu, D. M., Powell, M. C., & Kardes, F. R.(1986). On the automatic activation of attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 229-238.
Feldman, L. A. (1995). Valence focus and arousal focus: Individual differences in the structure of affective experience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 153-166.
First, M. B., Gibbon, M., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. (1996). User’s guide for the structured clinical interview for DSM-IV axis I disorders-Research version. New York, NY: Biometrics Research Department, New York State Psychiatric Institute.
Foa, E. B., & McNally, R. J. (1996). Mechanisms of change in exposure therapy. In R. M. Rapee (Ed.), Current controversies in the anxiety disorders (pp. 329-343). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Fontaine, J. R., Scherer, K. R., & Soriano, C. (2013). Components of emotional meaning: A sourcebook. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Ford, B. Q., & Gross, J. J. (2018). Emotion regulation: Why beliefs matter. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 59, 1-14. doi: 10.1037/cap0000142
Frijda, N. H. (1986). The emotions: Studies in emotion and social interaction. Paris, France: Maison de Sciences de l’Homme.
Glaser, J., & Banaji, M. R. (1999). When fair is foul and foul is fair:Reverse priming in automatic evaluation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 669-687.
Golier, J., & Yehuda, R. (2002). Neuropsychological processes in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 25, 295-315.
Gross, J. J. (2015). The extended process model of emotion regulation:Elaborations, applications, and future directions. Psychological Inquiry, 26, 130-137.
Gyurak, A., & Etkin, A. (2014). A neurobiological model of implicit and explicit emotion regulation. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 76-90). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
Gyurak, A., Gross, J. J., & Etkin, A. (2011). Explicit and implicit emotion regulation: A dual-process framework. Cognition and Emotion, 25, 400-412.
Herring, D. R., White, K. R., Jabeen, L. N., Hinojos, M., Terrazas, G., Reyes, S. M., . . . Crites, S. J. (2013). On the automatic activation of attitudes: A quarter century of evaluative priming research. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 1062-1089.
Horowitz, M., Wilner, N., & Alvarez, W. (1979). Impact of Event Scale: A measure of subjective stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 41, 209-218.
Jin, Y. S., & Kim, Y. K. (2010). Autobiographical memory: Its characteristics and application. Discourse and Policy in Social Science, 3, 207-229.
Johnson-Laird, P. N., & Oatley, K. (1989). The language of emotions:An analysis of a semantic field. Cognition and Emotion, 3, 81-123.
Kilpatrick, D. G., & Resnick, H. S. (1993). Posttraumatic stress disorder associated with exposure to criminal victimization in clinical and community populations. In J. R. T. Davidson & E. B. Foa (Eds.), Posttraumatic stress disorder: DSM-IV and beyond (pp. 113-143). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
Kim, J. Y., & Jeong, Y. K. (2018). The relationship between adolescence attachment and autobiographical memory. Korean Journal of Youth Studies, 25, 131-160.
Klauer, K. C., Rossnagel, C., & Musch, J. (1997). List-context effects in evaluative priming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23, 246-255.
Kron, A., Pilkiw, M., Banaei, J., Goldstein, A., & Anderson, A. K.(2015). Are valence and arousal separable in emotional experience?. Emotion, 15, 35-44.
Kuperman, V., Estes, Z., Brysbaert, M., & Warriner, A. B. (2014). Emotion and language: Valence and arousal affect word recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143, 1065-1081.
Lang, P. J., Melamed, B. G., & Hart, J. (1970). A psychophysiological analysis of fear modification using an automated desensitization procedure. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 76, 220-234.
Layton, B., & Krikorian, R. (2002). Memory mechanisms in posttraumatic stress disorder. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 14, 254-261.
Lee, J. M., & Lee, J. H. (2005). Contrast information processing in discourse comprehension. Korean Journal of Cognitive Science, 16, 69-92.
Liberman, N., & Trope, Y. (2014). Traversing psychological distance. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18, 364-369.
Lyttle, N., Dorahy, M. J., Hanna, D., & Huntjens, R. C. (2010). Conceptual and perceptual priming and dissociation in chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 777-790.
MacLeod, C. M. (2007). The concept of inhibition in cognition. In D. S. Gorfein & C. M. MacLeod (Eds.), Inhibition in cognition (pp. 3-23). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Maier, M. A., Berner, M. P., & Pekrun, R. (2003). Directionality of affective priming: Effects of trait anxiety and activation level. Experimental Psychology, 50, 116-123.
McLaughlin, K. A., Koenen, K. C., Friedman, M. J., Ruscio, A. M., Karam, E. G., Shahly, V., . . . Andrade, L. H. (2015). Subthreshold posttraumatic stress disorder in the world health organization world mental health surveys. Biological Psychiatry, 77, 375-384.
McNally, R. J. (2003). Remembering trauma. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.
McRae, K., & Boisvert, S. (1998). Automatic semantic similarity priming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24, 558-572.
Mehu, M., & Scherer, K. R. (2015). Emotion categories and dimensions in the facial communication of affect: An integrated approach. Emotion, 15, 798-811.
Musch, J., & Klauer, K. C. (2003). The psychology of evaluation: Affective processes in cognition and emotion. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Neely, J. H. (1977). Semantic priming and retrieval from lexical memory: Roles of inhibitionless spreading activation and limited-capacity attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 106, 226-254.
Neely, J. H. (1991). Semantic priming effects in visual word recognition: A selective review of current findings and theories. In D. Besner & G. W. Humphreys (Eds.), Basic processes in reading:Visual word recognition (pp. 264-336). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Orlić, A., Grahek, I., & Radović, T. (2014). The influence of valence and arousal on reasoning: Affective priming in semantic verification task. Psihologija, 47, 201-213.
Ortony, A., Clore, G. L., Collins, A. (1988). The cognitive structure of emotions. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Paulmann, S., Bleichner, M., & Kotz, S. A. (2013). Valence, arousal, and task effects in emotional prosody processing. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 345.
Philippot, P., Schaefer, A., & Herbette, G. (2003). Consequences of specific processing of emotional information: Impact of general versus specific autobiographical memory priming on emotion elicitation. Emotion, 3, 270-283.
Rossell, S. L., Bullmore, E. T., Williams, S. C., & David, A. S. (2001). Brain activation during automatic and controlled processing of semantic relations: A priming experiment using lexical-decision. Neuropsychologia, 39, 1167-1176.
Rossell, S. L., & Nobre, A. C. (2004). Semantic priming of different affective categories. Emotion, 4, 354-363.
Rubin, D. C. (2011). The coherence of memories for trauma: Evidence from posttraumatic stress disorder. Consciousness and Cognition, 20, 857-865.
Rubin, D. C., & Berntsen, D. (2009). The frequency of voluntary and involuntary autobiographical memories across the life span. Memory and Cognition, 37, 679-688.
Rubin, D. C., Berntsen, D., & Johansen, M. K. (2008). A memory based model of posttraumatic stress disorder: Evaluating basic assumptions underlying the PTSD diagnosis. Psychological Review, 115, 985-1011.
Rubin, D. C., Feldman, M. E., & Beckham, J. C. (2004). Reliving, emotions, and fragmentation in the autobiographical memories of veterans diagnosed with PTSD. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 18, 17-35.
Russell, J. A., & Barrett, L. F. (1999). Core affect, prototypical emotional episodes, and other things called emotion: Dissecting the elephant. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 805-819. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.76.5.805
Schachter, S., & Singer, J. (1962). Cognitive, social, and physiological determinants of emotional state. Psychological Review, 69, 379-399.
Sheppes, G., & Gross, J. J. (2011). Is timing everything?. Temporal considerations in emotion regulation. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15, 319-331.
Spitzer, R. L., Kroenke, K., Williams, J. B., & Patient Health Questionnaire Primary Care Study Group. (1999). Validation and utility of a self-report version of PRIME-MD: The PHQ primary care study. JAMA, 282, 1737-1744.
Stein, M. B., Walker, J. R., Hazen, A. L., & Forde, D. R. (1997). Full and partial posttraumatic stress disorder: Findings from a community survey. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1114-1119.
Tull, M. T., Barrett, H. M., McMillan, E. S., & Roemer, L. (2007). A preliminary investigation of the relationship between emotion regulation difficulties and posttraumatic stress symptoms. Behavior Therapy, 38, 303-313.
Tulving, E. (1995). Organization of memory: Quo vadis? In M. S. Gazzaniga (Ed.), The cognitive neurosciences (pp. 839-847). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Tulving, E. (2002). Episodic memory: From mind to brain. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 1-25.
Van der Hart, O., Van der Kolk, B. A., & Boon, S. (1998). Treatment of dissociative disorders. In J. D. Bremner & C. R. Marmar (Eds.), Trauma, memory, and dissociation (pp. 253-283). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
Weiss, D. S., & Marmar, C. R. (1997). The Impact of Event Scale-Revised. In J. P. Wilson & T. M. Keane (Eds.), Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD: A practitioner’s handbook (pp. 399-411). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Williams, J. G., Barnhofer, T., Crane, C., Herman, D., Raes, F., Watkins, E., & Dalgleish, T. (2007). Autobiographical memory specificity and emotional disorder. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 122-148. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.122
Williams, J. M. G., & Broadbent, K. (1986). Autobiographical memory in suicide attempters. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 144-149.
Zhang, Q., Kong, L., & Jiang, Y. (2012). The interaction of arousal and valence in affective priming: Behavioral and electrophysiological evidence. Brain Research, 1474, 60-72. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2012.07.023