E-ISSN : 2733-4538
This study was conducted in order to examine the effects of cognitive processing style and eye movements on an intrusion of similar trauma scenes. To do this, cognitive processing style was manipulated with data-driven processing and conceptual processing, and eye movements were manipulated with horizontal and vertical eye movements. Participants were college students without trauma experiences. In experiment 1, difference of intrusion was examined in each group after showing trauma film. According to results, more intrusions occurred in the vertical eye movement group than in the horizontal eye movement group. No difference was observed between cognitive processing style groups. However, it was not clear whether this result was caused by the cognitive processing style or by eye movements. In addition, it suggested the need to examine, how aspects of intrusion would be shown in the horizontal eye movements with passage of time. Accordingly, in experiment 2, the question of how cognitive processing and passage of time would have an effect on aspects of intrusion in the horizontal group was examined. According to the results, more intrusions for 1～3 days after the experiment occurred in the data-driven processing group, however, more intrusions for 4～6 days occurred in the conceptual processing group. These results suggest that although data-driven processing occurs when suffering from trauma, horizontal eye movements can serve as a reduction of intrusion. Finally, limitations of this study and suggestions for future study were discussed.
권순덕, 최윤경 (2014). 양측성 안구운동이 시험불안 대학생의 불안 및 작업기억과제 수행에 미치는 영향. 한국심리학회지: 임상 (in press).
김대호 (2005). 외상후 스트레스 장애에 대한 안구운동 민감소실 및 재처리 요법. 신경정신의학, 44, 147-151.
이정모 (2003). 인지심리학. 서울, 학지사.
이현희, 김은정, 이민규 (2003). 한국판 정적 정서 및 부적 정서 척도(Positive Affect and Negative Affect Schedule; PANAS)의 타당화 연구. 한국심리학회지: 임상, 22, 935-946.
영국 퀜트 경찰서 (2009). 교통사고 공익광고 영상. http://tvpot.daum.net/clip/ClipView.do? clipid=17851734에서 인출.
최윤경 (2012). 외상경험과 양측성 안구운동이 외상 및 중성 기억에 미치는 영향: DRM 패러다임을 적용한 탐색적 연구. 한국심리학회지: 임상, 31, 607-630.
한덕웅, 이장호, 전겸구 (1996). Spielberger의 상태-특성 불안검사 Y형의 개발. 한국심리학회지: 건강, 1, 1-14.
함진선, 이장한 (2012). 특질 불안 경향자의 위협자극에 대한 주의편향 연구: 안구운동 추적장비를 이용하여. 한국심리학회지: 임상, 31, 355-371.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Armstrong, M. S., & Vaughan, K. (1996). An orienting response model of eye movement desensitization. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 27, 21-32.
Andrade, J., Kavanagh, D., & Baddeley, A. (1997). Eye movements and visual imagery: A working memory approach to the treatment of post traumatic stress disorder. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 36, 209-223.
Astin, M. C., Layne, C. M., Camilleri, A. J., & Foy, D. W. (1994). Posttraumatic disorder in victimization-related trauma. New Directions for Mental Health Services, 64, 39-51.
Baddeley, A. D. (2000). The episodic buffer: A new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4(11), 417-423.
Barrowcliff, A. L., Gray, N. S., & MacCulloch, S. (2003). Horizontal rhythmical eye movements consistently diminish the arousal provoked by auditory stimuli. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 42, 289-302.
Barrowcliff, A. L., Gray, N. S., Freeman, T. C. A., & Macculloch, M. J. (2004). Eye- movements reduce the vividness, emotional valence and electrodermal arousal associated with negative autobiographical memories. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 15, 325-345.
Brewin, C. R., Dalgleish, T., & Joseph, S. (1996). A dual representation theory of post traumatic stress disorder. Psychological Review, 103, 670- 686.
Cusack, K. J., Grubaugh, A. L., Knapp, R. G., & Frueh, B. C. (2006). Unrecognized trauma and PTSD among public mental health consumers with chronic and severe mental illness. Community Mental Health Journal, 42, 487-500.
DeBell, C., & Jones, R. D., (1997). As Good as It seems? A review of EMDR experimental research. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 28, 153-163.
Ehlers, A. (1998). Data-driven versus conceptual processing questionnaire. Unpublished manuscript.
Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 319-345.
Engelhard, I. M., van den Hout, M. A., Janssen, W. C., & van der Beek, J. (2010). Eye movements reduce vividness and emotionality of “flashforwards”. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48, 442-447.
Foa, E. B., Cashman, L., Jaycox, L., & Perry, K. (1997). The validation of a self-report measures of posttraumatic stress disorder: The posttraumatic diagnostic Scale. Psychological Assessment, 9, 445-451.
Halligan, S. L., Clark, D. M., & Ehlers, A. (2002). Cognitive processing, memory, and the development of PTSD symptoms: Two experimental analogue studies. Journal of Behaviour Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 33, 73-89.
Holmes, E. A. (2004). Intrusive, emotional mental imagery and trauma: Experimental and clinical clues. Cognition and Personality, 23, 147-154.
Holmes, E. A., Brewin, C. R., & Hennessy, R. G. (2004). Trauma films, information processing, and intrusive memory development. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133, 3-22.
Holmes, E. A., & Bourne, C. (2008). Inducing and modulating intrusive emotional memories: A review of the trauma film paradigm. Acta Psychologica, 127, 553-566.
Horowitz, M., Wilner, M., & Alvarez, W. (1979). Impact of Event Scale: A measure of subjective stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 41, 209-218.
Janoff-Bulman, R. (1992). Shattered assumptions: Towards a new psychology of trauma. New York: Free Press.
Kavanagh, D. J., Freese, S., Andrade, J., & May, J. (2001). Effects of visuospatial tasks on desensitization to emotive memories. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 40, 267-280.
Kindt, M., van den Hout, M., Arntz, A., & Drost, J. (2008). The influence of data-driven versus conceptually driven processing on the development of PTSD-like symptoms. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 39, 546-557.
Krans, J., Näring, G., Holmes, E. A., & Becker, E. S. (2009). Tell me more: Can a memory test reduce analogue traumatic intrusions? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47, 426-430.
Lara, M. E., & Klein, D. N. (1999). Processes underlying chronicity in depression. Clinical Psychology Review, 19, 553-570.
Lazarus, R. S., & Alfert, E. (1964). The short- circuiting of threat by experimentally altering cognitive appraisal. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 69, 196-205.
Lazarus, R. S., & Opton, E. M. (1964). The study of psychological stress: A summary of theoretical formulations and experimental findings. In C. D. Spielberger(Ed.), Anxiety and Behaviour(pp. 225-262). New York: Academic Press.
Lazarus, R. S., Opton, E. M., Nomikos, M. S., & Rankin, N. O. (1965). The principle of short-circuiting of threat: Further evidence. Journal of Personality, 33, 622-635.
Lee, C. W., & Cuijpers, P. (2013). A meta-analysis of the contribution of eye movements in processing emotional memories. Behavioural Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 44, 231- 239.
MacCulloch, M. J., & Feldman, P. (1996) Eye movement desensitisation treatment utilises the positive visceral element of the investigatory reflex to inhibit the memories of post- traumatic stress disorder: A theoretical analysis. British Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 571-579.
McKinnon, A. C., Nixon, R. D. V., & Brewer, N. (2008). The influence of date-driven processing on perceptions of memory quality and intrusive symptoms in children following traumatic events. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46, 766-775.
Resick, P. A., & Schniche, C. K. (1992). Clinical handbook of psychological disorders: A step-by-step treatment manual (3rd.). The Guilford Press.
Roediger, H. L. (1990). Implicit memory: Retention without remembering. American Psychologist, 45, 1043-1056.
Sack, M. (2005). Alternations in autonomic tone during trauma therapy with EMDR: Paper presented at the ISTSS annual meeting.
Schubert, S. J., Lee, C. W., & Drummond, P. D. (2010). The efficacy and psychological correlates of dual-attention tasks in eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR). Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25, 1-11.
Shapiro, F. (1995). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: Basic principles, protocols, and procedures. New York: Guilford.
Shapiro, F. (2001). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: Basic principles, protocols and procedures (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
Speisman, J. C., Lazarus, R. S., Mordkoff, A., & Davison, L. (1964). Experimental reduction of stress based on ego-defense theory. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 68, 367-380.
Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., & Lushene, R. E. (1970). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Stickgold, R. (2002). EMDR: A putative neurobiological mechanism of action. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58, 61-75.
van den Hout, M., Muris, P., Salemink, E., & Kindt, M. (2001). Autobiographical memories become less vivid and emotional after eye movements. The British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 40, 121-130.
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063-1070.
Wegner, D. M., Schneider, D. J., Carter, S. I., & White, L. (1987). Paradoxical effects of thought suppression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 5-13.
Welch, K. L., & Beere, D. B. (2002). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: A treatment efficacy model. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 9, 165-176.
Wilson, D. L., Silver, S. M., & Covi, W. G. (1996). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: Effectiveness and autonomic correlates. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 27, 219-229.