E-ISSN : 2733-4538
Individuals with sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT) experience difficulties in achieving goal-directed behaviors. As time perspective (TP) helps elaborate problems in goal pursuit, this study aimed to identify the TP of individuals with SCT and compare it to individuals with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The screening was performed using the Barkley Adult ADHD Rating Scale-IV, and participants were divided into the following groups: SCT & ADHD (n= 20), SCT only (n= 46), ADHD only (n= 22), and healthy controls (n= 28). To assess TP, participants also completed the Swedish Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory. After controlling for depression and anxiety, the SCT only group showed higher present-fatalistic and future-negative TP compared to healthy controls. The ADHD only group showed higher present-hedonistic and futurenegative TP when compared to healthy controls. These results indicate that individuals with SCT have a generally fatalistic attitude and an aversive view of the future, possibly associated with low engagement in social and academic activities. On the other hand, individuals with ADHD have a present-oriented view and an aversive view of the future, possibly related to impulsivity.
Abikoff, H. (1985). Efficacy of cognitive training interventions in hyperactive children: A critical review. Clinical Psychology Review, 5, 479-512. https://doi.org/10.1016/0272-7358(85)90005-4
Antshel, K. M., & Remer, R. (2003). Social skills training in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A randomized-controlled clinical trial. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 153-165. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15374424JCCP3201_14
Barkley, R. A. (2011). Barkley Adult ADHD Rating Scale-IV (BAARSIV). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Barkley, R. A. (2012). Distinguishing sluggish cognitive tempo from attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 121, 978-990. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023961
Barkley, R. A. (2013). Distinguishing sluggish cognitive tempo from ADHD in children and adolescents: Executive functioning, impairment, and comorbidity. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 42, 161-173. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2012.734259
Barkley, R. A. (2014). Sluggish cognitive tempo (concentration deficit disorder?): Current status, future directions, and a plea to change the name. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42, 117-125. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9824-y
Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., & Steer, R. A. (1988). An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 893-897. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.56.6.893
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., Ball, R., & Ranieri, W. F. (1996). Comparison of Beck Depression Inventories-I and -II in psychiatric outpatients. Journal of Personality Assessment, 67, 588-597. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa6703_13
Becker, S. P. (2013). Topical review: Sluggish cognitive tempo: Research findings and relevance for pediatric psychology. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 38, 1051-1057. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jst058
Becker, S. P., Burns, G. L., Garner, A. A., Jarrett, M. A., Luebbe, A. M., Epstein, J. N., & Willcutt, E. G. (2018). Sluggish cognitive tempo in adults: Psychometric validation of the Adult Concentration Inventory. Psychological Assessment, 30, 296.
Becker, S. P., Langberg, J. M., Luebbe, A. M., Dvorsky, M. R., &Flannery, A. J. (2014). Sluggish cognitive tempo is associated with academic functioning and internalizing symptoms in college students with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 70, 388-403. https://doi. org/10.1002/jclp.22046
Becker, S. P., Burns, G. L., & Willcutt, E. G. (2015). Adult Concentration Inventory (ACI). Cincinnati, OH: Author.
Becker, S. P., Garner, A. A., Tamm, L., Antonini, T. N., & Epstein, J. N. (2017). Honing in on the social difficulties associated with sluggish cognitive tempo in children: Withdrawal, peer ignoring, and low engagement. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 48, 228-237. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2017. 1286595
Bolotova, A. K., & Hachaturova, M. R. (2013). The role of time perspective in coping behavior. Psychology in Russia: State of the Art, 6, 120-131. https://doi.org/10.11621/pir.2013.0311
Camprodon-Rosanas, E., Ribas-Fitó, N., Batlle-Vila, S., Persavento, C., Alvarez-Pedrerol, M., Sunyer, J., & Forns, J. (2017). Sluggish cognitive tempo: Sociodemographic, behavioral, and clinical characteristics in a population of catalan school children. Journal of Attention Disorders, 21, 632-641. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054716652477
Carelli, M. G., & Wiberg, B. (2012). Time out of mind: Temporal perspective in adults with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 16, 460-466. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054711398861
Carelli, M. G., Wiberg, B., & Wiberg, M. (2011). Development and construct validation of the swedish zimbardo time perspective inventory. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 27, 220-227. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000076
Choe, A. Y., Hwang, S. T., Kim, J. H., Park, K. B., Chey, J., & Hong, S. H. (2014). Validity of the K-WAIS-IV short forms. Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 33, 413-428.
Combs, M. A., Canu, W. H., Broman Fulks, J. J., & Nieman, D. C. (2014). Impact of sluggish cognitive tempo and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms on adults’ quality of life. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 9, 981-995. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-013-9281-3
De Bilde, J., Vansteenkiste, M., & Lens, W. (2011). Understanding the association between future time perspective and self-regulated learning through the lens of self-determination theory. Learning and Instruction, 21, 332-344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc. 2010.03.002
Fenollar Cortés, J., Servera, M., Becker, S. P., & Burns, G. L. (2017). External validity of ADHD inattention and sluggish cognitive tempo dimensions in Spanish children with ADHD. Journal of attention disorders, 21, 655-666. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054716680077
Ferrari, J. R., & Díaz-Morales, J. F. (2007). Procrastination: Different time orientations reflect different motives. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 707-714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2006.06. 006
First, M. B., Williams, J. B., Karg, R. S., & Spitzer, R. L. (2016). Structured clinical interview for DSM-5 disorders: SCID-5-CV clinician version. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.
Flannery, A. J., Luebbe, A. M., & Becker, S. P. (2017). Sluggish Cognitive tempo is associated with poorer study skills, more executive functioning deficits, and greater impairment in college students. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 73, 1091-1113. https://doi. org/10.1002/jclp.22406
Garner, A. A., Mrug, S., Hodgens, B., & Patterson, C. (2013). Do symptoms of sluggish cognitive tempo in children with adhd symptoms represent comorbid internalizing difficulties? Journal of Attention Disorders, 17, 510-518. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054711431456
Garner, A. A., Peugh, J., Becker, S. P., Kingery, K. M., Tamm, L., Vaughn, A. J., . . . Epstein, J. N. (2017). Does sluggish cognitive tempo fit within a bi-factor model of ADHD? Journal of Attention Disorders, 21, 642-654. https://doi.org/10.1177/108705-4714539995
Hwang, S. T., Kim, J. H., Park, G. B., Choi, J. Y., & Hong, S. H. (2012). K-WAIS-IV administration and scoring manual. Daegu: Korea Psychology.
Jarrett, M. A., Rapport, H. F., Rondon, A. T., & Becker, S. P. (2017). ADHD dimensions and sluggish cognitive tempo symptoms in relation to self-report and laboratory measures of neuropsychological functioning in college students. Journal of Attention Disorders, 21, 673-683. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054714560821
Lang, F. R., & Carstensen, L. L. (2002). Time counts: Future time perspective, goals, and social relationships. Psychology and Aging, 17, 125. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.17.1.125
Lee, H. S., & Chong, Y. S. (2018) The relationship between balanced time perspective and subjective well-being of the early-aged adult and late middle-aged adult: The mediation effects of happiness enhancing activities. The Korean Journal of Culture and Social Issues, 24, 615-636. https://doi.org/10.20406/kjcs.2018.11.24.4.615
Lee, S. Y. (2014). A review of sluggish cognitive tempo. Korean Journal of Psychology: General, 33, 327-355.
Leikauf, J. E., & Solanto, M. V. (2017). Sluggish cognitive tempo, internalizing symptoms, and executive function in adults with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 21, 701-711. https://doi. org/10.1177/1087054716682337
Lim, S. U., Lee, E. H., Hwang, S. T., Hong, S. T., Kim, J. H. (2014a). Psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory-II in Korea. Poster presented at the meeting of the Korean Clinical Psychological Association, Goyang-si, Gyeonggi-do.
Lim, S. U., Lee, E. H., Hwang, S. T., Hong, S. T., Kim, J. H. (2014b). Psychometric properties of the Beck Anxiety Inventory among adult population in Korea. Poster presented at the meeting of the Korean Clinical Psychological Association, Goyang-si, Gyeonggi-do.
Papastamatelou, J., Unger, A., Giotakos, O., & Athanasiadou, F. (2015). Is time perspective a predictor of anxiety and perceived stress? Some preliminary results from Greece. Psychological Studies, 60, 468-477. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12646-015-0342-6
Park, H. E., Kim, K., & Lee, J. H. (2017). A validation study of Korean version of Swedish Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory. Journal of the Korean Data Analysis Society, 19, 489-502.
Park, J. A., Joung, Y. S., Kim, J. H., Yoon, H. J., Lee, D. I., Oh, S., Kim, B. (2019) Association between executive functions and time perspectives in patients with adults attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Korean Neuropsychiatric Association, 58, 130-137. https://doi.org/10.4306/jknpa.2019.58.2.130
Pfiffner, L. J., Mikami, A. Y., Huang-Pollock, C., Easterlin, B., Zalecki, C., & McBurnett, K. (2007). A randomized, controlled trial of integrated home-school behavioral treatment for ADHD, predominantly inattentive type. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 46, 1041-1050. https://doi. org/10.1097/chi.0b013e318064675f
Rönnlund, M., Åström, E., & Carelli, M. G. (2017). Time perspective in late adulthood: Aging patterns in past, present and future dimensions, deviations from balance, and associations with subjective well-being. Timing & Time Perception, 5, 77-98. https://doi.org/10.1163/22134468-00002081
Scheres, A., Lee, A., & Sumiya, M. (2008). Temporal reward discounting and ADHD: Task and symptom specific effects. Journal of Neural Transmission, 115, 221-226. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-007-0813-6
Shipp, A. J., Edwards, J. R., & Lambert, L. S. (2009). Conceptualization and measurement of temporal focus: The subjective experience of the past, present, and future. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 110, 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2009.05.001
Smith, Z. R., Eadeh, H. M., Breaux, R. P., & Langberg, J. M. (2019). Sleepy, sluggish, worried, or down? The distinction between selfreported sluggish cognitive tempo, daytime sleepiness, and internalizing symptoms in youth with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychological Assessment, 31(3), 365-375. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000671
Sonuga-Barke, E. J. (2003). The dual pathway model of AD/HD:an elaboration of neuro-developmental characteristics. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 27, 593-604. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.neubiorev.2003.08.005
Sonuga-Barke, E. J. (2005). Causal models of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: from common simple deficits to multiple developmental pathways. Biological psychiatry, 57, 1231-1238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.09.008
Stolarski, M., Bitner, J., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2011). Time perspective, emotional intelligence and discounting of delayed awards. Time & Society, 20, 346-363. https://doi.org/10.1177/0961463X 11414296
Stolarski, M., Fieulaine, N., & van Beek, W. (2015). Time Perspective Theory; Review, Research and Application: Essays in Honor of Philip G. Zimbardo. Cham: Springer International. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-3-319-07368-2
Stolarski, M., & Matthews, G. (2016). Time perspectives predict mood states and satisfaction with life over and above personality. Current Psychology, 35, 516-526. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-016-9515-2
Sword, R. M., Sword, R. K., & Brunskill, S. R. (2015). Time perspective therapy: Transforming Zimbardo’s temporal theory into clinical practice. In M. Stolarski, N. Fieulaine, & W. van Beek, Time Perspective Theory; Review, Research and Application (pp. 481-498). Cham: Springer.
van Beek, W., Berghuis, H., Kerkhof, A., & Beekman, A. (2011). Time perspective, personality and psychopathology: Zimbardo’s time perspective inventory in psychiatry. Time & Society, 20, 364-374. https://doi.org/10.1177/0961463X10373960
Weissenberger, S., Klicperova-Baker, M., Zimbardo, P., Schonova, K., Akotia, D., Kostal, J., . . . Ptacek, R. (2016). ADHD and present hedonism: time perspective as a potential diagnostic and therapeutic tool. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 12, 2963-2971. https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S116721
Wechsler, D. (2008). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth edition. Bloomington, MN: Pearson.
Wilens, T. E. (2004). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and the substance use disorders: The nature of the relationship, subtypes at risk, and treatment issues. Psychiatric Clinics, 27, 283-301.
Wood, W. L. M., Lewandowski, L. J., Lovett, B. J., & Antshel, K. M. (2017). Executive dysfunction and functional impairment associated with sluggish cognitive tempo in emerging adulthood. Journal of Attention Disorders, 21, 691-700. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054714560822
Zimbardo, P. G., & Boyd, J. N. (1999). Putting time in perspective:A valid, reliable individual-differences metri. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1271-1288. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.77.6.1271
Zimbardo, P., Sword, R., & Sword, R. (2012). The time cure: Overcoming PTSD with the new psychology of time perspective therapy. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.