E-ISSN : 2733-4538
The purposes of this study were to investigate the onset and developmental changes of gender differences in depression and anxiety among Korean adolescents, and to explore specific features of the gender differences by using a clinical group and subscale analyses. A total of 3,236 adolescents in grades 4-12 completed the measures of CDI and RCMAS. Results showed that: (1) the gender differences in depression and anxiety started to appear in grades 7 and 8;, (2) the gender differences were statistically significant in middle school students, but not in high school students; and (3) the gender differences were examined in the total sample, but not in the clinical sample only. Also, the CDI subscales of ‘negative mood’ and ‘anhedonia’ as well as the RCMAS subscale of ‘worry/oversensitive’ had a relatively important influence on the gender differences. Clinical implications and limitations were also discussed.
김미영, 강윤주. (2000). 청소년기 우울 성향과 관련된 요인. 한국학교보건학회지, 13(2), 261-270.
민경환, 김지현, 황석현, 장승민. (1998). 성․ 세대․성격유형에 따른 정서 반응양식의 차이. 한국심리학회지: 사회 및 성격, 12 (2), 119-140.
박경애, 김은영. (1999). 청소년의 우울. 한국청 소년상담원.
박광배. (2008). 변량분석과 회귀분석. 서울: 학 지사.
박혜연, 김지혜, 고혜정, 홍세희. (2005). 아동 발현 불안 척도(Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale)의 요인구조 분석. 한국심리학 회지: 임상, 24(2), 427-437.
오경자, 하은혜, 홍강의, 이혜련. (2001). KYSR 청소년 자기행동평가척도. 서울: 중앙 적성출판사.
임은미, 정성석. (2009). 청소년의 스트레스와 우울의 변화 및 우울에 대한 스트레스의 장기적 영향. 청소년학연구, 16(3), 99-121.
조맹제, 김계희. (1993). 주요우울증환자 예비 평가에서 the Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale(CES-D)의 진단적 타 당성 연구. 신경정신의학, 32(3), 381-397.
조맹제, 장성민, 함봉진, 정인원, 배 안, 이영문, 안준호, 원승희, 손정우, 홍진표, 배재 남, 이동우, 조성진, 박종익, 이준영, 김진 영, 전홍진, 이해우. (2009). 한국 주요정신 장애의 유병률 및 관련요인: 2006 전국정 신질환역학조사. 신경정신의학, 48(3), 143- 152.
조성진, 전홍진, 김무진, 김장규, 김선욱, 류인 균, 조맹제. (2001). 한국 일 도시지역 청 소년의 우울 증상 유병률과 관련요인에 대한 연구. 신경정신의학, 40(4), 627-638.
조수철, 이영식 (1990). 한국형 소아 우울척도 의 개발. 신경정신의학, 29(4), 943-956.
최인재. (2007). 부모-자녀 간 의사소통이 청소 년기 자녀의 자아분화 및 우울과 불안에 미치는 영향. 한국심리학회지: 임상, 26(3), 611-628.
최진숙, 조수철 (1990). 소아불안의 측정: RCMAS의 신뢰도와 타당도 검사. 신경정신 의학, 29(3), 691-702.
하은혜, 오경자, 송동호. (2003). 청소년기 우울 및 불안증상 공존집단의 심리사회적 위험 요인. 한국심리학회지: 일반, 22(2), 127- 144.
Angold, A., Costello, E. J., Erkanli, A., & Worthman, C. M. (1999). Pubertal changes in hormone levels and depression in girls. Psychological Medicine, 29(5), 1043-1053.
Angold, A., Costello, E. J., & Worthman, C. M. (1998). Puberty and depression: the roles of age, pubertal status and pubertal timing. Psychological Medicine, 28(1), 51-61.
Angold, A., Erkanli, A., Silberg, J., Eaves, L., & Costello, E. J. (2002). Depression scale scores in 8-17-year-olds: effects of age and gender. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43(8), 1052-1063.
Angold, A., & Rutter, M. (1992). Effects of age and pubertal status on depression in a large clinical sample. Development and Psychopathology, 4, 5-28.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. (4th Ed.). Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association.
Cohen, P., Cohen, J., Kasen, S., Velez, C. N., Hartmark, C., Johnson, J., Rojas, M., Brook, J. et al. (1993). An epidemiological study of disorders in late childhood and adolescence: Ⅰ. Age- and gender-specific prevalence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34, 851-867.
Compas, B. E., Oppedisano, G., Connor, J. K., Gerhardt, C. A., Hinden, B. R., Achenbach, T. M., & Hammen, C. (1997). Gender differences in depressive symptoms in adolescence: Comparison of national samples of clinically referred and nonreferred youths. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65(4), 617-626.
Costello, E. J., & Angold, A. (1988). Scales to assess child and adolescent depression: checklists, screens, and nets. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 27(6), 726-737.
Costello, E. J., & Angold, A. (2006). Developmental epidemiology. In D. Cicchetti, & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology, Vol 1: Theory and method (2nd ed., pp.41-75). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Costello, E. J., Mustillo, S., Erkanli, A., Keeler, G., & Angold, A. (2003). Prevalence and development of psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60(8), 837-844.
Craighead, W. E., Smucker, M. R., Craighead, L. W., & Ilardi, S. S. (1998). Factor analysis of the Children's Depression Inventory in a community sample. Psychological Assessment, 10(2), 156-165.
Cyranowski, J. M., Frank, E., Young, E., & Shear, M. K. (2000). Adolescent onset of the gender difference in lifetime rates of major depression: a theoretical model. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57(1), 21-27.
Finch, A. J., Saylor, C. R., & Edwards, G. L. (1985). Children's Depression Inventory: Sex and grade norms for normal children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53(3), 424- 425.
Ge, X., Lorenz, F. O., Conger, R. D., Elder, G. H., & Simons, R. L. (1994). Trajectories of stressful life events and depressive symptoms during adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 30(4), 467-483.
Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (1998). Mapping the domain of expressivity: Multimethod evidence for a hierarchical model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(1), 171-191.
Hagopian, L. P., & Ollendick, T. H. (1997). Anxiety disorders. In R. T. Ammerman & M. Hersen (Eds.), Handbook of prevention and treatment with children and adolescents (pp.434). NY: Wiley.
Hammen, C. & Rudolph, K. D. (2003). Childhood anxiety disorders. In E. J. Marsh, & R. A. Barkley (Eds.), Child psychopathology (2nd ed., pp.233-278). NY: Guildford.
Hartung, C. M., & Widiger, T. A. (1998). Gender differences in the diagnosis of mental disorders: Conclusions and controversies of the DSM Ⅳ. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 260-278.
Honzo, S., Sasaki, Y., Kaneko, H., Tachibana, K., Murase, S., Ishii, T., Nishide, Y., & Nishide, T. (2003). Study on feelings of school avoidance, depression, and character tendencies among general junior high and high school students. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 57(5), 464-471.
Ivarsson, T., Svalander, P., & Litlere, O. (2006). The Children's Depression Inventory(CDI) as measure of depression in Swedish adolescents: a normative study. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 60(3), 220-226.
Kashani, J. H., Orvaschel, H., Rosenberg, T. K., & Reid, J. C. (1989). Psychopathology in a community sample of children and adolescents: A developmental perspective. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28(5), 701-706.
Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(6), 593-602.
Kovacs, M. (1985). The Children's Depression Inventory. Psychopharmachology Bulletin, 27, 955 -988.
Kovacs, M. (1991). The children's depression inventory(CDI). North Tonawanda, NY: Multi- Health Systems.
Kring, A. M., & Gordon, A. H. (1998). Sex differences in emotion: Expression, experience, and physiology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(3), 686-703.
Kuehner, C. (2003). Gender differences in unipolar depression: an update of epidemiological findings and possible explanations. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 108, 163-174.
Lewinsohn, P. M., Gotlib, I. H., Lewinsohn, M., Seeley, J. R., & Allen, N. B. (1998). Gender differences in anxiety disorders and anxiety symptoms in adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107(1), 109-117.
Lewinsohn, P. M., Rohde, P., Klein, D. M., & Seeley, J. R. (1999). Natural course of adolescent major depressive disorder: Ⅰ. Continuity into young adulthood. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 56-63.
Muris, P., Merckelbach, H., Ollendick, T., King, N., & Bogie, N. (2002). Three traditional and three new childhood anxiety questionnaires: their reliability and validity in a normal adolescent sample. Behavioral Research and Therapy, 40, 753-772.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2000). The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/ depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109(3), 504-511.
Petersen, A. C., Sarigiani, P. A., & Kennedy, R. E. (1991). Adolescent depression: Why more girls? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 20, 247- 271.
Reynolds, C. R. (1982). Convergent and divergent validity of the Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 42, 1205-1212.
Reynolds, C. R., & Paget, K. D. (1981). Factor analysis of the Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale for blacks, whites, males, and females with a national normative sample. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 49(3), 352-359.
Reynolds, C. R., & Richmond, B. O. (1978). What I think and feel: A revised measure of Children's Manifest Anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 6(2), 271-280.
Roza, S. J., Hofstra, M. B., van der Ende, J., & Verhulst, F. C. (2003). Stable prediction of mood and anxiety disorders based on behavioral and emotional problems in childhood: a 14-year follow-up during childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(12), 2116-2121.
Rudolph, K. D. (2002). Gender differences in emotional responses to interpersonal stress during adolescence. Journal of Adolescent Health, 30(4), 3-13.
Sarah, J. B., & Stan, K. (2001). Diagnosis and measurement of adolescent depression: a review of commonly utilized instruments. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 11(4), 341-376.
Steele, R. G., Little, T. D., Ilardi, S. S., Forehand, R., Brody, G. H., & Hunter, H. L. (2006). A confirmatory comparison of the factor structure of the children's depression inventory between European American and African American youth. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 15(6), 773-788.
Teri, L. (1982). The use of the Beck Depression Inventory with adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 10, 277-284.
Turgeon, L., & Chartrand, E. (2003). Reliability and Validity of the Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale in a French-Canadian Sample. Psychological Assessment, 15(3), 378-383.
Van Oort, F. V. A., Greaves-Lord, K., Verhulst, F. C., Ormel, J., & Huizink, A. C. (2009). The developmental course of anxiety symptoms during adolescence: the TRAILS study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50(10), 1209 -1217.
Weiss, B., Weisz, J. R., Politano, M., Carey, M., Nelson, W. M., & Finch, A. J. (1991). Developmental differences in the factor structure of the Children's Depression Inventory. Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 3(1), 38-45.
Wichstrøm, L. (1999). The emergence of gender difference in depressed mood during adolescence: the role of intensified gender socialization. Developmental Psychology, 35(1), 232-245.
Zahn-Waxler, C., Crick, N. R., Shirtcliff, E. A., & Wood, K. E. (2006). The origins and development of psychopathology in females and males. In D. Cicchetti, & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology, Vol 1: Theory and method (2nd ed., pp.76-138). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Zahn-Waxler, C., Shirtcliff, E. A., & Marceau, K. (2008). Disorders of childhood and adolescence: gender and psychopathology. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4(1), 275-303.