open access
메뉴
open access
메뉴
E-ISSN : 2733-4538
It is well-known that post-traumatic stress symptoms are associated with dysfunctional information processing of traumatic events. Until now, the role of bilateral(horizontal) eye movements, a core component of EMDR(eye movement desensitization & reprocessing), has not been theoretically clarified. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of traumatic experience and bilateral eye movements on trauma-related and neutral memory using a false memory paradigm originally developed by Deese(1959) and modified by Roediger and McDermott(1995). In order to achieve these goals, two experiments were performed. Main independent variables assessed were traumatic experience(traumatized vs. non-traumatized), eye movements(horizontal vs. vertical), and word lists(trauma-related vs. neutral). Dependent variables assessed were the correct recognition rate for studied words, the false recognition rate for critical lures, the false alarm rate for unrelated words, and the response times for each of the word lists. Participants were divided into two groups: a traumatized group who experienced a traumatic event and had at least moderate symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder(15 or above on Post-traumatic Diagnostic Scale; Foa, 1995) and a non-traumatized group. The results show that traumatized participants generated less correct recognition of studied words and more false alarms of unrelated words than controls(Experiment 1 & Experiment 2). Further, bilateral eye movements were associated with a slower response time to previously presented trauma-related words among traumatized participants(Experiment 2). Limitations of the current study and implications for future research were also discussed.
박영신, 김기중, 박희경 (2004). DRM 패러다임에서 오기억과 실제 기억에 미치는 부적 정서의 효과. 한국심리학회지: 실험, 16, 131-150.
박영신, 박희경, 김기중 (2003). 오기억을 산출하는 단어 목록 규준. 사회과학 연구(가톨릭대학교 사회과학 연구소 간행), 19, 207- 220.
최윤경 (2009). 외상 관련 DRM 목록의 개발. 한국심리학회지: 임상, 28, 929-942.
American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington DC: American Psychiatric Press.
Amir, N., Leiner, A. S., & Bomyea, J. (2010). Implicit memory and posttraumatic stress symptoms. Cognitive Therapy & Research, 34, 49-58.
Andrade, J., Kavanagh, D., & Baddeley, A. (1997). Eye movements and visual imagery: A working memory approach to the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 36, 209-223.
Baddeley, A. D. (2000). The episodic buffer: A new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 417-423.
Barrowcliff, A. L., Gray, N. S., Freeman, T. C. A., & MacCulloch, M. J. (2004). Eye movements reduce the vividness, emotional valence and electrodermal arousal associated with negative autobiographical memories. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 15, 325-345.
Bisson, J. I., Ehlers, A., Mattews, R., Pilling, S., Richards, D., & Turner, S. (2007). Psychological treatments for chronic post- traumatic stress disorder: Systematic review and meta-analysis. British Journal of Psychiatry, 190, 97-104.
Bremner, J. D., Randall, P., Scott, T. M., Capelli, S., Delaney, R., McCarthy, G., et al. (1995). Deficits in short-term memory in adult survivors of childhood abuse. Psychiatry Research, 59, 97-107.
Bremner, J. D., Scott, T. M., Delaney, R. C., Southwick, S. M., Mason, J. W., Johnson, D. R., et al. (1993). Deficits in short-term memory in posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 1015-1019.
Bremner, J. D., Shobe, K. K., & Kihlstrom, J. F. (2000). False memories in women with self- reported childhood sexual abuse. Psychological Science, 11, 333-337.
Brennen, T., Dybdahl, R., & Kapidžić, A. (2007). Trauma-related and neutral false memories in war-induced posttraumatic stress disorder. Consciousness & Cognition, 16, 877-885.
Brewin, C. R., Dalgleish, T., & Joseph, S. (1996). A dual representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Review, 103, 670- 686.
Brunyé, T. T., Mahoney, C. R., Augustyn, J. S., & Taylor, H. A. (2009). Horizontal saccadic eye movements enhance the retrieval of landmark shape and location information. Brain & Cognition, 70, 279-288.
Christman, S. D., Garvey, K. J., Propper, R. E., & Phaneuf, K. A. (2003). Bilateral eye movements enhance the retrieval of episodic memories. Neuropsychology, 17, 221-229.
Christman, S. D., Propper, R. E., & Dion, A. (2004). Increased interhemispheric interaction is associated with deceased false memories in a verbal converging semantic associates paradigm. Brain & Cognition, 56, 313-319.
Christopher, M. (2004). A broader view of trauma: A biopsychosocial-evolutionary view of the role of the traumatic stress response in the emergence of pathology and/or growth. Clinical Psychology Review, 24, 75-98.
Corson, Y., & Verrier, N. (2007). Emotions and false memories: Valence or arousal? Psychological Science, 18, 208-211.
de Decker, A., Hermans, D., Raes, F., & Eelen, P. (2003). Autobiographical memory specificity and trauma in inpatient adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 32, 22- 31.
Deese, J. (1959). Influence of inter-item associative strength upon immediate free recall. Psychological Reports, 5, 305-312.
Dehon, H., Laroi, F., & Van der Linden, M. (2010). Affective valence influences participant's susceptibility to false memories and illusory recollection. Emotion, 10, 627-639.
Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research & Therapy, 38, 319-345.
Elofsson, U. O. E., von Schèele, B., Theorell, T., & Söndergaard, H. P. (2008). Physiological correlates of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22, 622-634.
Engelhard, I. M., van den Hout, M. A., Janssen, W. C., & van der Beek, J. (2010). Eye movements reduce vividness and emotionality of “flashforwards”. Behaviour Research & Therapy, 48, 442-447.
Foa, E. B. (1995). The posttraumatic diagnostic scale(PDS) manual. Minneapolis, MN: National Computer Systems.
Foa, E. B., & Kozak, M. J. (1986). Emotional processing of fear: Exposure to corrective information. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 20-35.
Foa, E. B., & Rothbaum, B. O. (1998). Treating the trauma of rape: A cognitive-behavioral therapy for PTSD. New York: Guilford Press.
Foa, E. B., Cashman, L., Jaycox, L., & Perry, K. (1997). The validation of a self-report measure of posttraumatic stress disorder: The posttraumatic diagnostic scale. Psychological Assessment, 9, 445-451.
Foa, E. B., Ehlers, A., Clark, D. M., Tolin, D. F., & Orsillo, S. M. (1999). The posttraumatic cognitions inventory(PTCI): Development and validation. Psychological Assessment, 11, 303-314.
Gunter, R. W., & Bodner, G. E. (2008). How eye movements affect unpleasant memories: Support for a working-memory account. Behaviour Research & Therapy, 46, 913-931.
Hauschildt, M., Peters, M. J. V., Jelinek, L., & Moritz, S. (2012). Verdical and false memory for scenic material in posttraumatic stress disorder. Consciousness & Cognition, 21, 80-89.
Jelinek, L., Randjbar, S., Seifert, D., Kellner, M., & Moritz, S. (2009). The organization of autobiographical and nonautobiographical memory in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 288-298.
Kemps, E., & Tiggemann, M. (2007). Reducing the vividness and emotional impact of distressing autobiographical memories: The importance of modality specific interference. Memory, 15, 412-422.
Kensinger, E. A., Brierley, B., Medford, N., Growdon, J. H., & Corkin, S. (2002). Effects of normal aging and Alzheimer's disease on emotional memory. Emotion, 2, 118-134.
Levin, P., Lazrove, S., & van der Kolk, B. (1999). What psychological testing and neuroimaging tells us about the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder by eye movement desensitization reprocessing. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 13, 159-172.
Lohr, J. M., Lilienfeld, S. O., Tolin, D. F., & Herbert, J. D. (1999). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: An analysis of specific versus nonspecific treatment factors. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 13, 185-207.
MacCulloch, M. J., & Feldman, P. (1996). Eye movement desensitization treatment utilizes the positive visceral element of the investigatory reflex to inhibit the memories of post- traumatic stress disorder: A theoretical analysis. British Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 571- 579.
McNally, R. (2006). Cognitive abnormalities in posttraumatic stress disorder. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10, 271-277.
Moradi, A. R., Herlihy, J., Yasseri, G., Shahraray, M., Turner, S., & Dalgleish, T. (2008). Specificity of episodic and semantic aspects of autobiographical memory in relation to symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder. Acta Psychologica, 127, 645-653.
Palmer, J. E., & Dodson, C. S. (2009). Investigating the mechanism fueling reduced false recall of emotional material. Cognition & Emotion, 23, 238-259.
Parker, A., & Dagnall, N. (2007). Effects of bilateral eye movements on gist based false recognition in the DRM paradigm. Brain & Cognition, 63, 221-225.
Peter, M. J. V., Jelicic, M., Verbeek, H., & Merckelbach, H. (2007). Poor working memory predicts false memories. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 19, 213-232.
Propper, R. E., Pierce, J., Geisler, M. W., Christman, S. D., & Bellorado, N. (2007). Effect of bilateral eye movements on frontal interhemispheric gamma EEG coherence: Implications for EMDR therapy. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 195, 785-788.
Roediger, H. L., & McDermott, K. B. (1995). Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in list. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 21, 803-814.
Schweizer, S., & Dalgleish, T. (2011). Emotional working memory capacity in posttraumatic stress disorder(PTSD). Behavior Research & Therapy, 49, 498-504.
Shapiro, F. (1989). Efficacy of the eye movement desensitization procedure in the treatment of traumatic memories. Journal of Traumatic Stress Studies, 2, 199-223.
Shapiro, F. (2001). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: Basic principles, protocols and procedures (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
Smeets, T., Jelicic, M., Merckelbach, H., Peter, M., Fett, A., Taverniers, J., et al. (2006). Enhanced memory performance on an internal- internal source monitoring test following acute psychosocial stress. Behavioral Neuroscience, 120, 1204-1210.
Stadler, M. A. (1993). Implicit serial learning: Questions inspired by Hebb (1961). Memory & Cognition, 21, 819-827.
Stickqold, R. (2002). EMDR: A putative neurobiological mechanism of action. Journal of Clinical Psychology. 58, 61-75.
Vasterling, J. J., Constans, J. I., Brailey, K., & Sutker, P. B. (1998). Attention and memory dysfunction in posttraumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychology, 12, 125-133.
Zoellner, L. A., Foa, E. B., Brigidi, B. D., & Przeworski, A. (2000). Are trauma victims susceptible to “false memories”? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 517-524.