open access
메뉴
open access
메뉴
E-ISSN : 2733-4538
The purpose of the present study was to examine whether intrusive rumination mediated the relationship between trauma and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptoms and if negative prospective cognition moderated the mediating effect of intrusive rumination in the relationship between trauma and PTSD symptoms. In particular, we aimed to investigate whether there would be a gender difference in the aforementioned moderated mediation. A total of 440 Korean undergraduate students and graduate students were asked to complete the Life Event Checklist, Impact of the Event Scale-Revised, Event Related Rumination Inventory, and the Prospective Cognition Questionnaire for this research. The main findings were as follows: Firstly, intrusive rumination partially mediated the relationship between trauma and PTSD symptoms. Secondly, negative prospective cognition moderated the mediating effect of trauma on PTSD symptoms via intrusive rumination. Finally, there was a gender difference in the moderating effect, confirming a moderated moderated mediation. More specifically, the moderated mediating effect was observed in female students but not in male students. In conclusion, after trauma, female students who recognize the future negatively are more susceptible to PTSD symptoms through the intrusive rumination, while female students who recognize the future less negatively can be protected from PTSD symptoms under the same condition. Based on these results the implications and limitations of this study are discussed.
Addis, D. R., Wong, A. T., & Schacter, D. L. (2007). Remembering the past and imagining the future: Common and distinct neural substrates during event construction and elaboration. Neuropsychologia, 45, 1363-1377.
Ahn, H. N., Joo, H. S., Min, J. W., & Sim, K. S., (2013). Validation of the event related rumination inventory in a Korean population. Cognitive Behavior Therapy in Korea, 13, 149-172.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and satistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.
Bae, H., Kim, D., Koh, H., Kim, Y., & Park, J. S. (2008). Psychometric properties of the life events checklist-Korean version. Psychiatry Investigation, 5, 163-167.
Berntsen, D., & Rubin, D. C. (2015). Pretraumatic stress reactions in soldiers deployed to Afghanistan. Clinical Psychological Science, 3, 663-674.
Berntsen, D., Willert, M., & Rubin, D. C. (2003). Splintered memories or vivid landmarks? Qualities and organization of traumatic memories with and without PTSD. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 17, 675-683.
Blackburn, L., & Owens, G. P. (2016). Rumination, resilience, and posttraumatic stress disorder symptom severity among veterans of Iraq and Afghanistan. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment &Trauma, 25, 197-209.
Blackwell, S. E., & Holmes, E. A. (2017). Brightening the day with flashes of positive mental imagery: A case study of an individual with depression. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 73, 579-589.
Blake, D. D., Weathers, F. W., Nagy, L. M., Kaloupek, D. G., Gusman, F. D., Charney, D. S., & Keane, T. M. (1995). The development of a clinician-administered PTSD scale. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8, 75-90.
Borders, A., Rothman, D. J., & McAndrew, L. M. (2015). Sleep problems may mediate associations between rumination and PTSD and depressive symptoms among OIF/OEF veterans. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 7, 76.
Botzung, A., Denkova, E., & Manning, L. (2008). Experiencing past and future personal events: Functional neuroimaging evidence on the neural bases of mental time travel. Brain and Cognition, 66, 202-212.
Brown, A. D., Root, J. C., Romano, T. A., Chang, L. J., Bryant, R. A., & Hirst, W. (2013). Overgeneralized autobiographical memory and future thinking in combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 44, 129-134.
Cann, A., Calhoun, L. G., Tedeschi, R. G., Triplett, K. N., Vishnevsky, T., & Lindstrom, C. M. (2011). Assessing posttraumatic cognitive processes: The event related rumination inventory. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 24, 137-156.
Cheung, J., & Bryant, R. A. (2016). The impact of appraisals on intrusive memories. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 54, 108-111.
Cho. Y. R. (2012). Factor structure, convergent and discriminative validity of a Korean version of the Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory (PTCI) in a sample of traumatized undergraduates. Cognitive Behavior Therapy in Korea, 12, 369-391.
Choi, Y. G., Lee, J. H., Lee, H. P., & Lee, H.S., (2015). The trauma profiles of Korean adults. Conference Materials of Korean Psychological Association, 207.
Chuen Y. L., B., Lau, S., Cheung, S. H., & Allen, N. B. (2012). The impact of rumination on internal attention switching. Cognition & Emotion, 26, 209-223.
Clark, D. M. (1999). Anxiety disorders: Why they persist and how to treat them. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, S5-S27.
Cortina, L. M., & Kubiak, S. P. (2006). Gender and posttraumatic stress: sexual violence as an explanation for women's increased risk. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 753.
Cusack, K. J., Grubaugh, A. L., Knapp, R. G., & Frueh, B. C. (2006). Unrecognized trauma and PTSD among public mental health consumers with chronic and severe mental illness. Community Mental Health Journal, 42, 487-500.
D’Argembeau, A. (2012). Autobiographical memory and future thinking. In D. Berntsen & D. C. Rubin (Eds.), Understanding autobiographical memory: Theories and approaches (pp. 311-330). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Diehle, J., de Roos, C., Meiser-Stedman, R., Boer, F., & Lindauer, R. J. (2015). The Dutch version of the Child Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory: Validation in a clinical sample and a school sample. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 6, 26362.
Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 319-345.
Ehlers, A., Hackmann, A., & Michael, T. (2004). Intrusive re-experiencing in post-traumatic stress disorder: Phenomenology, theory, and therapy. Memory, 12, 403-415.
Ehlers, A., & Steil, R. (1995). Maintenance of intrusive memories in posttraumatic stress disorder: A cognitive approach. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 23, 217-249.
Ehring, T., Ehlers, A., & Glucksman, E. (2008). Do cognitive models help in predicting the severity of posttraumatic stress disorder, phobia, and depression after motor vehicle accidents? A prospective longitudinal study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76, 219.
Eun, H. J., Kwon, T. W., Lee, S. M., Kim, T. H., Choi, M. R., & Cho, S. J. (2005). A study on reliability and validity of the Korean version of impact of event scale-revised. Journal of Korean Neuropsychiatric Association, 44, 303-310.
Frans, Ö., Rimmö, P. A., Åberg, L., & Fredrikson, M. (2005). Trauma exposure and post‐traumatic stress disorder in the general population. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 111, 291-290.
Frazier, P. A. (2003). Perceived control and distress following sexual assault: A longitudinal test of a new model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 1257.
Frazier, P. A., Anders, S., Shallcross, S., Keenan, N., Perera, S., Howard, K., & Hintz, S. (2012). Further development of the temporal model of control. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59, 623.
Fresco, D. M., Frankel, A. N., Mennin, D. S., Turk, C. L., & Heimberg, R. G. (2002). Distinct and overlapping features of rumination and worry: The relationship of cognitive production to negative affective states. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 26, 179-188.
Gabert‐Quillen, C. A., Selya, A., & Delahanty, D. L. (2015). Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms mediate the relationship between trauma exposure and smoking status in college students. Stress and Health, 31, 78-82.
Gold, D. B., & Wegner, D. M. (1995). Origins of ruminative thought: Trauma, incompleteness, nondisclosure, and suppression. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 25, 1245-1261.
Hatcher, M. B., Whitaker, C., & Karl, A. (2009). What predicts post‐traumatic stress following spinal cord injury. British Journal of Health Psychology, 14, 541-561.
Hayes, A. F. (2015). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. Paju:Shinyoungsa.
Hayes, A. F. (2017). Partial, conditional, and moderated moderated mediation: Quantification, inference, and interpretation. Communication Monographs, 1-37.
Hintz, S., Frazier, P., Keenan, N., Anders, S., Perera, S., & Shallcross, S. (2010). Development of a measure of the perceived likelihood of stressful events. Poster presented at the meeting of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, Montreal, CA.
Horowitz, M., Wilner, N., & Alvarez, W. (1979). Impact of event scale: A measure of subjective stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 41, 209-218.
Janoff-Bulman, R. (2010). Shattered assumptions. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Jeon, S. Y., & Kim, E. J. (2013). The relationship between rumination subtypes (brooding vs reflection) and depression in undergraduate students: The mediating effect of avoidance. Cognitive Behavior Therapy in Korea, 13, 285-306.
Johnson, D. P., & Whisman, M. A. (2013). Gender differences in rumination: A meta-analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 55, 367-374.
Kleim, B., Graham, B., Fihosy, S., Stott, R., & Ehlers, A. (2014). Reduced specificity in episodic future thinking in posttraumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychological Science, 2, 165-173.
Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York: Guilford Press.
Ko, O. J., Jang, J. Y., & Lee,. J. Y. (2015). The mediating effect of traumatized self-system between fear of intimacy and exposure to interpersonal trauma: Multi-group analysis upon self-compassion level. Journal of Social Science, 26, 81-101.
Lee, H. K., (2016). Misunderstanding and truth of moderation, moderated mediation and mediated moderation. Korean Journal of Tourism Research, 31, 213-248.
Lee, O. J., & Ji, Y. H. (2010). The analysis of field police officers'Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptoms for the application of police job stress reduction program. The Korean Association of Police Science Review, 26, 173-203.
Lee, S. J., & Cho, Y. R. (2009). The effects of perceived control and avoidance coping on Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms in female victims of domestic violence. Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 28, 415-436.
Llera, S. J., & Newman, M. G. (2014). Rethinking the role of worry in generalized anxiety disorder: Evidence supporting a model of emotional contrast avoidance. Behavior Therapy, 45, 283-299.
Markham, A. M., & Mason, S. E. (2016). The relationship between rumination, gender, age, and posttraumatic stress. Modern Psychological Studies, 21, 83-87.
McFarland, C. P., Clark, J. B., Lee, L. O., Grande, L. J., Marx, B. P., & Vasterling, J. J. (2016). Event-based prospective memory among veterans: The role of posttraumatic stress disorder symptom severity in executing intentions. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 38, 251-260.
Michael, T., Halligan, S. L., Clark, D. M., & Ehlers, A. (2007). Rumination in posttraumatic stress disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 24, 307-317.
Ministry of Health and Welfare. (2011). The 2011 Epidemiological Survey of Mental Disorders among Korean Adults. Retrieved from http://academic.naver.com/openUrl.nhn?doc_id=54678497&linkType=outlink
Miranda, R., & Mennin, D. S. (2007). Depression, generalized anxiety disorder, and certainty in pessimistic predictions about the future. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 31, 71-82.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1991). Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 569-582.
Nolen‐Hoeksema, S., & Jackson, B. (2001). Mediators of the gender difference in rumination. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 25, 37-47.
Norris, F. H. (1992). Epidemiology of trauma: Frequency and impact of different potentially traumatic events on different demographic groups. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 409.
Norris, F. H., Perilla, J. L., Ibañez, G. E., & Murphy, A. D. (2001). Sex differences in symptoms of posttraumatic stress: Does culture play a role?. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14, 7-28.
Olff, M., Langeland, W., Draijer, N., & Gersons, B. P. (2007). Gender differences in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 183.
Papageorgiou, C., & Wells, A. (2003). An empirical test of a clinical metacognitive model of rumination and depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 261-273.
Pickett, S. M., Barbaro, N., & Mello, D. (2016). The relationship between subjective sleep disturbance, sleep quality, and emotion regulation difficulties in a sample of college students reporting trauma exposure. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 8, 25.
Read, J. P., Colder, C. R., Merrill, J. E., Ouimette, P., White, J., & Swartout, A. (2012). Trauma and posttraumatic stress symptoms predict alcohol and other drug consequence trajectories in the first year of college. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 80, 426.
Renner, F., Ji, J. L., Pictet, A., Holmes, E. A., & Blackwell, S. E. (2017). Effects of engaging in repeated mental imagery of future positive events on behavioural activation in individuals with major depressive disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 41, 369-380.
Resnick, H. S., Kilpatrick, D. G., Dansky, B. S., Saunders, B. E., & Best, C. L. (1993). Prevalence of civilian trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in arepresentative national sample of women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 984.
Roley, M. E., Claycomb, M. A., Contractor, A. A., Dranger, P., Armour, C., & Elhai, J. D. (2015). The relationship between rumination, PTSD, and depression symptoms. Journal of Affective Disorders, 180, 116-121.
Scott, J. C., Woods, S. P., Wrocklage, K. M., Schweinsburg, B. C., Southwick, S. M., & Krystal, J. H. (2016). Prospective memory in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 22, 724-734.
Shin, H. S., & Khu, B. Y. (2001). Stress coping and its relationship to adjustment in Korean adolescents. The Korea Journal of Youth Counseling, 9, 189-225.
Simmons, C. A., & Granvold, D. K. (2005). A cognitive model to explain gender differences in rate of PTSD diagnosis. Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, 5, 290.
Smith, J. M., & Alloy, L. B. (2009). A roadmap to rumination: A review of the definition, assessment, and conceptualization of this multifaceted construct. Clinical Psychology Review, 29, 116-128.
Spasojević, J., & Alloy, L. B. (2001). Rumination as a common mechanism relating depressive risk factors to depression. Emotion, 1, 25.
Speckens, A. E., Ehlers, A., Hackmann, A., Ruths, F. A., & Clark, D. M. (2007). Intrusive memories and rumination in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder: A phenomenological comparison. Memory, 15, 249-257.
Stockton, H., Hunt, N., & Joseph, S. (2011). Cognitive processing, rumination, and posttraumatic growth. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 24, 85-92.
Suliman, S., Mkabile, S. G., Fincham, D. S., Ahmed, R., Stein, D. J., & Seedat, S. (2009). Cumulative effect of multiple trauma on symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety, and depres sion in adolescents. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 50, 121-127.
Szpunar, K. K. (2010). Episodic future thought: An emerging concept. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 142-162.
Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (2004). “Posttraumatic growth:Conceptual foundations and empirical evidence”. Psychological Inquiry, 15, 1-18.
Tolin, D. F., & Foa, E. B. (2006). Sex differences in trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: A quantitative review of 25 years of research. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 959-992.
Ullman, S. E., Peter-Hagene, L. C., & Relyea, M. (2014). Coping, emotion regulation, and self-blame as mediators of sexual abuse and psychological symptoms in adult sexual assault. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 23, 74-93.
Vishnevsky, T., Cann, A., Calhoun, L. G., Tedeschi, R. G., & Demakis, G. J. (2010). Gender differences in self‐reported posttraumatic growth: A meta‐analysis. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34, 110-120.
Weiss, D. S. (2007). The impact of event scale: revised. In Wilson, J. P., & Tang, C. C. S. K. (Eds.). Cross-cultural assessment of psychological trauma and PTSD (pp. 219-238). New York: Springer US.
Yang, K. H., & Kim, J. M. (2014). An analysis of posttraumatic growth process: Triple mediation effects of difficulties in emotion regulation, intrusive and deliberate rumination, and moderation effects of optimism. The Korean Journal of Health Psychology, 19, 1041-1065.
Yu, H. J. (2015). The mediating effect of resilience and deliberate rumination in the influence of childhood trauma on posttraumatic growth. The Korean Journal of Elementary Counseling, 14, 277-296.
Zhen, R., Quan, L., Yao, B., & Zhou, X. (2016). Understanding the relationship between rainstorm-related experiences and PTSD among Chinese adolescents after rainstorm disaster: The roles of rumination and social support. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1407-1414.
Zhou, X., & Wu, X. (2016). The relationship between rumination, posttraumatic stress disorder, and posttraumatic growth among Chinese adolescents after earthquake: A longitudinal study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 193, 242-248.