바로가기메뉴

본문 바로가기 주메뉴 바로가기

logo

Research review: studies in brain structure/function of psychopaths

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to investigate brain studies of individuals with psychopathy. Previous studies using brain imaging were reviewed with pivotal research results in brain structure/function of psychopaths. Reduced volumes in prefrontal cortex, temporal lobe, and amygdala have been reported in psychopathy. Psychopaths showed abnormal brain function in prefrontal lobe, reduced amygdala activity in emotional processing, and increased striatum activity during reward processing. Functional and structural studies provide support for dysfunction in fronto-limbic circuits of psychopathy. Psychopathy has been reported as a disorder of the moral brain by a significant number of researchers. Abnormalities of fronto-limbic networks may be associated with impulsiveness, aggression, callous-unemotional traits, and problems of moral socialization. The limitations of the studies and directions for the future research were discussed.

keywords
Psychopath, Brain structure, Brain function, Prefrontal cortex, Amygdala, Fronto-limbic circuits, 정신병질자, 뇌구조, 뇌기능, 전전두 피질, 편도체, 전두-변연계 신경회로

Reference

1.

강지은, 김영윤, 김범준 (2010). 정신병질 경향성집단에서의 정서인식: 시각적 Oddball 과제를 이용한 사건관련전위연구. 한국심리학회지: 인지 및 생물, 22, 451-475.

2.

김영윤 (2014). 정신병질 특성집단의 인지기능연구. 교정담론, 8, 95-132.

3.

이수정, 김혜진 (2009). 사이코패스의 전두엽집행기능 및 정서 인식력 손상기전. 한국심리학회지: 사회 및 성격, 23, 107-121.

4.

이수정, 고려진, 김재경 (2009). 한국판Psychopathy Checklist-Revised(PCL-R)의 구성타당도 연구. 한국심리학회지: 사회 및 성격, 23, 57-71.

5.

이수정, 김민정 (2010). 국내 범죄자를 대상으로 한 PCL-R 재범예측력에 대한 연구. 한국심리학회지: 법정, 1, 43-55.

6.

이수정, 박혜영 (2008). PPI-R 전문가 지침서:한국판 표준화. 서울: 학지사.

7.

정윤선, 김범준, 김영윤 (2010). 정서 Go/NoGo 과제를 이용한 정신병질 경향성집단의 반응억제: 사건관련전위연구. 한국심리학회지: 사회 및 성격. 24, 17-21.

8.

조은경, 이수정 (2008). PCL-R 전문가 지침서:한국판 표준화. 서울: 학지사.

9.

Anderson, N. E. & Kiehl, K. A. (2012). The psychopath magnetized: insights from brain imaging. Trends Cogn. Sci., 16, 52-60.

10.

Barkataki, J., Kumari, V., Das, M., Taylor, P., & Sharma, T. (2006). Volumetric structural brain abnormalities in men with schizophrenia or antisocial personality disorder. Behavioural Brain Research, 169, 239-247.

11.

Benning, S. D., Patrick, C. J., & Iacono, W. G. (2005). Psychopathy, startle blink modulation, and electrodermal reactivity in twin men. Psychophysiology, 42, 753-762.

12.

Bertsch, K., Grothe, M., Prehn, K., Vohs, K., Berger, C., Hauenstein, K., Keiper, P., Domes, G., Teipel, S., & Herpertz, S. C. (2013). Brain volumes differ between diagnostic groups of violent criminal offenders. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci., 263, 593-606.

13.

Bickart, K. C., Dickerson, B. C., & Barrett, L. F. (2014). The amygdala as a hub in brain networks that support social life. Neuropsychologia, 63, 235-248.

14.

Birbaumer, N., Veit, R., Lotze, M., Erb, M., Hermann, C., Grodd, W., & Flor, H. (2005). Deficient fear conditioning in psychopathy. Archives of Genenal Psychiatry, 62, 799-805.

15.

Bjork, J. M., Chen, G., & Hommer, D. W. (2012). Psychopathic tendencies and mesolimbic recruitment by cues for instrumental and passively obtained rewards. Biol Psychol., 89, 408-415.

16.

Blair, R. J. R. (1995). A cognitive developmental approach to morality: Investigating the psychopath. Cognition, 57, 1-29.

17.

Blair, R. J. R. (2007). The amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex in morality and psychopathy. Trends in Cognitive Science, 11, 387-392.

18.

Blair, R. J. R. (2010). Psychopathy, frustration, and reactive aggression: the role of ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Br. J. Psychol., 101, 383-399.

19.

Blair, R. J. R. (2013). Psychopathy: cognitive and neural dysfunction. Dialogues Clin. Neurosci., 15, 181-190.

20.

Blair, R. J. R., Jones, L., Clark, F., & Smith, M. (1997). The psychopathic individual: a lack of responsiveness to distress cues? Psychophysiology, 34, 192-198.

21.

Boccardi, M., Bocchetta, M., Aronen, H. J., Repo-Tiihonen, E., Vaurio, O., Thompson, P. M., Tiihonen, J., & Frisoni, G. B. (2013). Atypical nucleus accumbens morphology in psychopathy: another limbic piece in the puzzle. Int. J. Law Psychiatry, 36, 157-167.

22.

Boccardi, M., Frisoni, G. B., Hare, R. D., Cavedo, E., Najt, P., Pievani, M., Rasser, P. E., Laakso, M. P., Aronen, H. J., Repo-Tiihonen, E., Vaurio, O., Thompson, P. M., & Tiihonen, J. (2011). Cortex and amygdala morphology in psychopathy. Psychiatry Res., 193, 85-92.

23.

Brendgen, M., Dionne, G., Girard, A., Boivin, M., Vitaro, F., & Perusse, D. (2005). Examining genetic and environmental effects on social aggression: a study of 6-year-old twins. Child Development, 76, 930-946.

24.

Buckholtz, J. W., Treadway, M. T., Cowan, R. L., Woodward, N. D., Benning, S. D., Li, R., Ansari, M. S., Baldwin, R. M., Schwartzman, A. N., Shelby, E. S., Smith, C. E., Cole, D., Kessler, R. M., & Zald, D. H. (2010). Mesolimbic dopamine reward system hypersensitivity in individuals with psychopathic traits. Nature Neuroscience, 13, 419-421.

25.

Carlson, S. R. & Thái, S. (2010). ERPs on a continuous performance task and self-reported psychopathic traits: P3 and CNV augmentation are associated with Fearless Dominance. Biol Psychol., 85, 318-330.

26.

Carlson, S. R., Thái, S., & McLarnon, M. E. (2009). Visual P3 amplitude and self-reported psychopathic personality traits: frontal reduction is associated with self-centered impulsivity. Psychophysiology, 46, 100-113.

27.

Carpenter, D. O. & Nevin, R. (2010). Environmental causes of violence. Physiol. Behav., 99, 260-268.

28.

Carré, J. M., Hyde, L. W., Neumann, C. S., Viding, E., & Hariri, A. R. (2013). The neural signatures of distinct psychopathic traits. Soc. Neurosci., 8, 122-135.

29.

Caspi, A., McClay, J., Moffitt, T. E., Mill, J., Martin, J., Craig, I. W., Taylor, A., & Poulton, R. (2002). Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science, 297, 851-854.

30.

Cleckley, H. (1976). The mask of sanity (5th ed.). St. Louis, MO: C.V. Mosby.

31.

Coccaro, E. F., Sripada, C. S., Yanowitch, R. N., & Phan, K. L. (2011). Corticolimbic function in impulsive aggressive behavior. Biol. Psychiatry, 69, 1153-1159.

32.

Cohen, D., & Strayer, J. (1996). Empathy in conduct-disordered and comparison youth. Developmental Psychology, 32, 988-998.

33.

Contreras-Rodríguez, O., Pujol, J., Batalla, I., Harrison, B. J., Bosque, J., Ibern-Regàs, I., Hernández-Ribas, R., Soriano-Mas, C., Deus, J., López-Solà, M., Pifarré, J., Menchón, J. M., & Cardoner, N. (2014). Disrupted neural processing of emotional faces in psychopathy. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci., 9, 505-512.

34.

Craig, M. C., Catani, M., Deeley, Q., Latham, R., Daly, E., Kanaan, R., Picchioni, M., McGuire, P. K., Fahy, T., & Murphy, D. G. (2009). Altered connections on the road to psychopathy. Mol. Psychiatry, 14, 946-953.

35.

Dolan, M. C., Deakin, J. F., Roberts, N., & Anderson, I. M. (2002). Quantitative frontal and temporal structural MRI studies in personality-disordered offenders and control subjects. Psychiatry Research, 116, 133-149.

36.

Donchin, E. & Cole, M. G. H. (1988). Is the P300 component a manifestation of context updating? Behav. Brain Sci., 11, 357-374.

37.

Eisenbarth, H., Angrilli, A., Calogero, A., Harper, J., Olson, L. A., & Bernat, E. (2013). Reduced negative affect response in female psychopaths. Biol. Psychol., 94, 310-318.

38.

Fairchild, G., Passamonti, L., Hurford, G., Hagan, C. C., von dem Hagen, E. A., van Goozen, S. H., Goodyer, I. M., & Calder, A. J. (2011). Brain structure abnormalities in early-onset and adolescent-onset conduct disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 624-633.

39.

Fairchild, G., van Goozen, S. H., Calder, A. J., & Goodyer, I. M. (2013). Research review:evaluating and reformulating the developmental taxonomic theory of antisocial behaviour. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry, 54, 924-940.

40.

Finger, E. C., Marsh, A., Blair, K. S., Majestic, C., Evangelou, I., Gupta, K., Schneider, M. R., Sims, C., Pope, K., Fowler, K., Sinclair, S., Tovar-Moll, F., Pine, D., & Blair, R. J. R. (2012). Impaired functional but preserved structural connectivity in limbic white matter tracts in youth with conduct disorder or oppositional defiant disorder plus psychopathic traits. Psychiatry Res., 202, 239-244.

41.

Fitch, W. L. & Ortega, R. J. (2000). Law and the confinement of psychopaths. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 18, 663-678.

42.

Fumagalli, M., & Priori, A. (2012). Functional and clinical neuroanatomy of morality. Brain, 135, 2006-2021.

43.

Gao, Y., Raine, A. (2009). P3 event-related potential impairments in antisocial and psychopathic individuals: a meta-analysis. Biol. Psychol., 82, 199-210.

44.

Gao, Y., Raine, A., & Schug, R. A. (2011). P3event-related potentials and childhood maltreatment in successful and unsuccessful psychopaths. Brain Cogn., 77, 176-182.

45.

Gao, Y., Raine, A., Venables, P. H., Dawson, M. E., & Mednick, S. A. (2010). Association of poor childhood fear conditioning and adult crime. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 56-60.

46.

Glenn, A. L. & Raine, A. (2009). Psychopathy and instrumental aggression: Evolutionary, neurobiological, and legal perspectives. Int. J. Law Psychiatry, 32, 253-258.

47.

Glenn, A. L., Raine, A., & Laufer, W. S. (2011). Is it wrong to criminalize and punish psychopaths? Emotion Review, 3, 302-304.

48.

Glenn, A. L. & Yang, Y. (2012). The potential role of the striatum in antisocial behavior and psychopathy. Biol. Psychiatry, 72, 817-822.

49.

Glenn, A. L. (2011). The other allele: exploring the long allele of the serotonin transporter gene as a potential risk factor for psychopathy: a review of the parallels in findings. Neurosci Biobehav Rev., 35, 612-620.

50.

Glenn, A. L., Raine, A., Schug, R. A., Gao, Y., & Granger, D. A. (2011). Increased testosteroneto-cortisol ratio in psychopathy. J. Abnorm. Psychol., 120, 389-399.

51.

Glenn, A. L., Raine, A., Yaralian, P. S., & Yang, Y. (2010). Increased volume of the striatum in psychopathic individuals. Biol. Psychiatry., 67, 52-58.

52.

Gorenstein, E. E. (1982). Frontal lobe function in psychopaths. Journal of Abnormal psychology, 91, 368-379.

53.

Gorenstein, E. E., & Newman, J. P. (1980). Disinhibitory psychopathology: a new perspective and a model for research. Psychological Review, 87, 301-315.

54.

Gowin, J. L., Green, C. E., Alcorn, J. L., Swann, A. C., Moeller, F. G., & Lane, S. D. (2013). The role of cortisol and psychopathy in the cycle of violence. Psychopharmacology, 227, 661-672.

55.

Hare, R. D. (1991). The Self-Report Psychopathy Scale-II. Vancouver, Canada: Unpublished test, University of British Columbia.

56.

Hare, R. D. (1993). Without conscience: The disturbing world of the psychopaths among us. New York: Pocket Books.

57.

Hare, R. D. (2003). The Hare Psychopathy Checklist-revised. (2nd ed..). Tronto: Multi-Health Systems.

58.

Hare, R. D. & McPherson, L. M. (1984). Violent and aggressive behavior by criminal psychopaths. Int. J. Law Psychiatry. 7, 35-50.

59.

Hare, R. D., McPherson, L. M,, & Forth, A. E. (1988). Male psychopaths and their criminal careers. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol., 56, 710-714.

60.

Harenski, C. L., Harenski, K. A., Shane, M. S., & Kiehl, K. A. (2010). Aberrant neural processing of moral violations in criminal psychopaths. J. Abnorm. Psychol., 119, 863-874.

61.

Harenski, C. L., Hare, R. D., & Kiehl, K. A. (2010). Neuroimaging, genetics, and psychopathy: implications for the legal system. In: Malatesti, L.; McMillan, J., editors. Responsibility and Psychopathy: Interfacing Law, Psychiatry & Philosophy. Oxford University Press. p. 125-154.

62.

Hawes, D. J., Brennan, J., & Dadds, M. R. (2009). Cortisol, callous-unemotional traits, and pathways to antisocial behavior. Curr. Opin. Psychiatry, 22, 357-362.

63.

Hemphill, J. F., Hare, R. D., & Wong, S. (1998). Psychopathy and recidivism: A review. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 3, 141-172.

64.

Hillyard, S. A., Squires, K. C., Bauer, J. W., & Lindsay, P. H. (1971). Evoked potential correlates of auditory signal detection. Science, 172, 1357-1360.

65.

Iofrida, C., Palumbo, S., & Pellegrini, S. (2014). Molecular genetics and antisocial behavior:where do we stand? Exp. Biol. Med., 239, 1514-1523.

66.

Jones, R. J. (1996). Mental Health Act Manual, 5th edn. London: Sweet and Maxwell.

67.

Karpman, B. (1948). The myth of the psychopathic personality. Am. J. Psychiatry, 104, 523-534.

68.

Kiehl, K. A. (2006). A cognitive neuroscience perspective on psychopathy: evidence for paralimbic system dysfunction. Psychiatry Research, 142, 107-128.

69.

Kiehl, K. A., Hare, R. D., Liddle, P. F., & McDonald, J. J. (1999). Reduced P300responses in criminal psychopaths during a visual oddball task. Biological Psychiatry, 45, 1498-1507.

70.

Kim, Y. Y., & Jung, Y. S. (2014). Reduced frontal activity during response inhibition in individualswith psychopathic traits: An sLORETA study. Biological Psychology, 97, 49-59.

71.

Kim-Cohen, J., Caspi, A., Taylor, A., Williams, B., Newcombe, R., Craig, I. W., & Moffitt, T. E. (2006). MAOA, maltreatment, and gene-environment interaction predicting children’s mental health: New evidence and a meta-analysis. Molecular Psychiatry, 11, 903-913.

72.

Koenigs, M. (2012). The role of prefrontal cortex in psychopathy. Rev. Neurosci., 23, 253-262.

73.

Laakso, M. P., Gunning-Dixon, F., Vaurio, O., Repo-Tiihonen, E., Soininen, H., & Tiihonen, J. (2002). Prefrontal volumes in habitually violent subjects with antisocial personality disorder and type 2 alcoholism. Psychiatry Research, 114, 95-102.

74.

Laakso, M. P., Vaurio, O., Koivisto, E., Savolainen, L., Eronen, M., Aronen, H. J., Hakola, P., Repo, E., Soininen, H., & Tiihonen, J. (2001). Psychopathy and the posterior hippocampus. Behav. Brain Res., 118, 187-193.

75.

Larsson, H., Andershed, H., & Lichtenstein, P. (2006). A genetic factor explains most of the variation in the psychopathic personality. J. Abnorm. Psychol, 115, 221-230.

76.

Levenson, M. R., Kiehl, K. A., & Fitzpatrick, C. M. (1995). Assessing psychopathic attributes in a noninstitutionalized population. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 151-158.

77.

Lilienfeld, S. O. & Widows, M. R. (2005). Psychopathic Personality Inventory–.Revised:Professional manual, Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

78.

Ly, M., Motzkin, J. C., Philippi, C. L., Kirk, G. R., Newman, J. P., Kiehl, K. A., & Koenigs, M. (2012). Cortical thinning in psychopathy. Am. J. Psychiatry, 169, 743-749.

79.

Markowitsch, H. J. & Staniloiu, A. (2011). Neuroscience, neuroimaging and the law. Cortex, 47, 1248-1251.

80.

Marsh, A. A. & Blair, R. J. R. (2008). Deficits in facial affect recognition among antisocial populations: a meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev., 32, 454-465.

81.

Marsh, A. A. & Cardinale, E. M. (2014). When psychopathy impairs moral judgments: neural responses during judgments about causing fear. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci., 9, 3-11.

82.

Marsh, A. A., Finger, E. C., Fowler, K. A., Jurkowitz, I. T. N., Schechter, J. C., Yu, H. H., Pine, D. S., & Blair, R. J. R. (2011). Reduced amygdala-orbitofrontal connectivity during moral judgments in youths with disruptive behavior disorders and psychopathic traits. Psychiatry Research, 194, 279-286.

83.

Marsh, A. A., Finger, E. C., Mitchell, D. G. V., Reid, M. E., Sims, C., Kosson, D. S., Towbin, K. E., Leibenluft, E., Pine, D., & Blair, R. J. R. (2008). Reduced amygdala response to fearful expressions in children and adolescents with callous-unemotional traits and disruptive behavior disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 712-720.

84.

Marshall, W. L., Hudson, S. M., Jones, R., & Fernandez, Y. M. (1995). Empathy in sex offenders. Clinical Psychology Review, 15, 99-113.

85.

Motzkin, J. C., Newman, J. P., Kiehl, K. A., & Koenigs, M. (2011). Reduced prefrontal connectivity in psychopathy. J. Neurosci., 31, 17348-17357.

86.

Muller, J. L. (2010). Psychopathy-an approach to neuroscientific research in forensic psychiatry. Behav. Sci. Law, 28, 129-147.

87.

Muller, J. L., Ganßbauer, S., Sommer, M.,Dohnel, K., Weber, T., Schmidt-Wilcke, T., & Hajak, G. (2008). Gray matter changes in right superior temporal gyrus in criminal psychopaths. Evidence from voxel based morphometry. Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging, 163, 213-222.

88.

Narayan, V. M., Narr, K. L., Kumari, V., Woods, R. P., Thompson, P. M., Toga, A. W., & Sharma, T. (2007). Regional cortical thinning in subjects with violent antisocial personality disorder or schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 1418-1427.

89.

Oliveira-Souza, R., Hare, R. D., Bramati, I. E., Garrido, G. J., Ignacio, F. A., Tovar-Moll, F., & Moll, J. (2008). Psychopathy as a disorder of the moral brain: Fronto-temporo-limbic grey matter reductions demonstrated by voxel-based morphometry. Neuroimage, 40, 1202-1213.

90.

Osumi, T., Nakao, T., Kasuya, Y., Shinoda, J., Yamada, J., & Ohira, H. (2012). Amygdala dysfunction attenuates frustration-induced aggression in psychopathic individuals in a non-criminal population. J. Affect. Disord., 142, 331-338.

91.

Pardini, D. A., Raine, A., Erickson, K., & Loeber, R. (2014). Lower amygdala volume in men is associated with childhood aggression, early psychopathic traits, and future violence. Biol. Psychiatry, 75, 73-80.

92.

Patrick, C. J. (2006). Handbook of psychopathy. New York: Guilford Press.

93.

Paulhus, D. L., Neumann, C. S., & Hare, R. D. (in press). Manual for the Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (4th ed.). Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.

94.

Picton, T. W. (1992). The P300 wave of the human event-related potential. J. Clin. Neurophysiol., 9, 456-479.

95.

Raine, A. (2001). Into the mind of a killer. Nature, 410, 296-298.

96.

Raine, A., Lencz, T., Bihrle, S., LaCasse, L., & Colletti, P. (2000). Reduced prefrontal gray matter volume and reduced autonomic activity in antisocial personality disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 119-127.

97.

Raine, A., Lencz, T., Taylor, K., Hellige, J. B., Bihrle, S., Lacasse, L., Lee, M., Ishikawa, S., & Colletti, P. (2003). Corpus callosum abnormalities in psychopathic antisocial individuals. Archive of General Psychiatry, 60, 1134-1142.

98.

Salekin, R., Rogers, R. & Sewell, K. W. (1996). Areview and meta-analysis of the Psychopathy Checklist and Psychopathy Checklist-Rivised:Predictive validity of dangerousness. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practive, 3, 203-215.

99.

Shamay-Tsoory, S. G., Tomer, R., Berger, B. D., & Aharon-Peretz, J. (2003). Characterization of empathy deficits following prefrontal brain damage: The role of the right ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 15, 324-337.

100.

Squires, N. K., Squires, K. C., & Hillyard, S. A. (1975). Two varieties of long-latency positive waves evoked by unpredictable auditory stimuli in man. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol., 38, 387-401.

101.

Sundram, F., Deeley, Q., Sarkar, S., Daly, E., Latham, R., Craig, M., Raczek, M., Fahy, T., Picchioni, M., the UK AIMS Network, Barker, G. J., & Murphy, D. G. M. (2012). White matter microstructural abnormalities in the frontal lobe of adults with antisocial personality disorder. Cortex, 48, 216-229.

102.

Sutton, S., Braren, M., & Zubin, J. (1965). Evoked potentials correlates of stimulus uncertainty. Science, 150, 1187-1188.

103.

Thompson, D. F., Ramos, C. L., & Willett, J. K. (2014). Psychopathy: clinical features, developmental basis and therapeutic challenges. J. Clin. Pharm. Ther., 39, 485-495.

104.

Tiihonen, J., Hodgins, S., Vaurio, O., Laakso, M., Repo, E., Soininen, H., Aronen, H. J., Nieminen, P., & Savolainen, L. (2000). Amygdaloid volume loss in psychopathy. Society for Neuroscience. Abstracts: 2017.

105.

Vaillancourt, T. & Sunderani, S. (2011). Psychopathy and indirect aggression: the roles of cortisol, sex, and type of psychopathy. Brain Cogn., 77, 170-175.

106.

Wahlund, K. & Kristiansson, M.. (2009). Aggression, psychopathy and brain imaging -Review and future recommendations. IInt. J. Law Psychiatry, 32, 266-271.

107.

Yang, Y., & Raine, A. (2009). Prefrontal structural and functional brain imaging findings in antisocial, violent, and psychopathic individuals: A meta-analysis. Psychiatry Research, 174, 81-88.

108.

Yang, Y., Raine, A., Colletti, P., Toga, A. W., & Narr, K. L. (2010). Morphological alterations in the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala in unsuccessful psychopaths. J. Abnorm. Psychol., 119, 546-554.

109.

Yang, Y., Raine, A., Colletti, P., Toga, A. W., & Narr, K. L. (2011). Abnormal structural correlates of response perseveration in individuals with psychopathy. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci., 23, 107-110.

110.

Yang, Y., Raine, A., Lencz, T., Bihrle, S., LaCasse, L., & Colletti, P. (2005). Volume reduction in prefrontal gray matter in unsuccessful criminal psychopaths. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1103-1108.

111.

Yang, Y., Raine, A., Narr, KL., Colletti, P., & Toga, A. W. (2009). Localization of deformations within the amygdala in individuals with psychopathy. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 66, 986-994.

112.

Yildirim, B. O. & Derksen, J. J. (2012). A review on the relationship between testosterone and life-course persistent antisocial behavior. Psychiatry Res., 200, 984-1010.

logo