ISSN : 1229-0718
This study aimed to investigate age differences in cognitive control. Participants were 49 7- to 12-year-old children and 37 adults, who performed a computerized Stroop task. Stroop effects and conflict adaptation effects were calculated. First, children showed larger Stroop effects than did adults for error rates and reaction times, whereas the two groups showed similar levels of Stroop effects for the percentage of reaction times. Second, children didn't show conflict adaptation effects for errors, reaction times and the percentage of reaction times, whereas adults showed conflict adaptation effects for reaction times and the percentage of reaction times. Third, two types of conflict adaptation effects were analyzed separately. Children and adults displayed a similar level of congruent adaptation effect, whereas only adults showed an incongruent adaptation effect. Even in children, cognitive control, which facilitates a goal-relevant response for better performance, reached adult levels, but the cognitive control that inhibits goal-irrelevant response was present only in adults.
곽금주, 박혜원, 김청택 (2001). K-WISC-Ⅲ 지침서. 서울: 도서출판특수교육.
권은영, 이현진 (2012). 한국 아동의 속임수, 틀린 믿음, 실행기능의 발달 및 상호 관계성. 한국심리학회지: 발달, 25(2), 165-184.
맹세호, 정윤경, 권미경 (2014). 한국 아동의실행기능 발달과 수학능력의 관련성: 측정과 그래프 이해를 중심으로. 한국심리학회지: 발달, 27(1), 95-115.
이명주, 홍창희 (2006). 실행기능의 차원과 영역별 발달. 한국심리학회지: 임상, 25(2), 587-602.
최은아, 송하나 (2013). 유아의 인지적 실행기능 및 정서적 실행기능과 자기 조절간의관계: 만 3-5세 유아의 발달 차이를 중심으로. 아동학회지, 34(5), 99-114.
한소희 (2001). 고기능 자폐 아동의 실행기능 결함과 마음이론. 이화여자대학교 대학원 석사학위 논문.
Best, J. R., & Miller, P, H. (2010). A developmental perspective on executive function. Child Development, 81, 1641-1660.
Botvinick, M. M., Braver, T. S., Barch, D. M.,Carter, C. S., & Cohen, J. D. (2001). Conflict monitoring and cognitive control. Psychological Review, 108, 624-652.
Botvinick, M. M., Cohen, J. D., & Carter, C. S.(2004). Conflict monitoring and anterior cingulate cortex: An update. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8, 539-546.
Brocki, K. C., & Bohlin, G. (2013). Executive functions in children aged 6 to 13: A dimensional and developmental study. Developmental Neuropsychology, 26, 571-593.
Bull, R., & Scerif, G. (2001). Executive functioning as a predictor of children’s mathematics ability: Inhibition, switching, and working memory. Developmental Neuropsychology, 19, 273-293.
Bunge, S. A., Dudukovic., Thomason, M.E.,Vaidya, C. J., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2002). Immature frontal lobe contributions to cognitive control in children: Evidence from fMRI, Neuron, 33, 301-311.
Carlson, S. M., & Moses, L. (2001). Individual differences in inhibitory control and children's theory of mind. Child Development, 72, 1032-1053.
Carter, C. S., Mintun, M., & Cohen, J. D. (1995). Inference and facilitation effects during selective attention: An H2150 PET study of Stroop task performance. NeuroImage, 2, 264-272.
Cataldo, M. G., Nobil, M., Lorusso, M. L.,Battaglia, M., & Molteni, M. (2005). Impulsivity in depressed children and adolescents: A comparison between behavioral and neuropsychological data. Psychiatry Research, 136, 123-133.
Ciairano, S., Visu-Petra, L., & Settanni, M. (2007). Executive inhibitory control and cooperative behavior during early school years: A follow-up study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 335-345.
Clair-Thompson, H. L., & Gathercole, S. F. (2006). Executive functions and achievements in school: Shifting, updating, inhibition, and working memory. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 59, 745-759.
Clark, C. A. C, Pritchard, V. E., & Woodward, L.J. (2010). Preschool executive functioning abilities predict early mathematics achievement. Developmental Psychology, 46, 1176-1191.
Clayson, P. E., & Larson, M. J. (2011). Conflict adaptation and sequential trial effects: Support for the conflict monitoring theory. Neuropsychologia, 49, 1953-1961.
Davidson, M. C., Amso, D., Anderson, L. C., &Diamond, A. (2006). Development of cognitive control and executive functions from 4 to 13 years: Evidence from manipulations of memory, inhibition, and task switching. Neuropsychologia, 44, 2037-2078.
Egner, T., & Hirsch, J. (2005a). Cognitive control mechanisms resolve conflict through cortical amplification of task-relevant information. Nature Neuroscience, 8, 1784-1790.
Egner, T., & Hirsch, J. (2005b). The neural correlates and functional integration of cognitive control in a Stroop task. NeuroImage, 24, 539-547.
Fuhs, M. W., Nesbitt, K. T., Farran, D. C., &Dong, N. (2014). Longitudinal associations between executive functioning and academic skills across content areas. Developmental Psychology, 50, 1698-1709.
Gratton, G., Coles, M. G., & Donchin, E. (1992). Optimizing the use of information: Strategic control of activation of responses. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 121, 480-506.
Guttentag, R. E., & Haith, M. M. (1978). Automatic processing as a function of age and reading ability. Child Development, 49, 707-716.
Isquith, P. K., Giogia, G. A., & Espy, K. A.(2004). Executive function in preschool children: Examination through everyday behavior. Developmental Neuropsychology, 26, 403-422.
Kaufmann, L., & Nuerk, H. C. (2006). Interference effects in a numerical stroop paradigm in 9-12 year-old children with ADHD-C. Child Neuropsychology, 12, 223-243.
Kerns, J. G., Cohen, J. D., MacDonald, A. W., Cho, R. Y., Stenger, V. A., & Carter, C. S.(2004). Anterior cingulate conflict monitoring and adjustments in control. Science, 303, 1023-1026.
Kim, C., Chung, C., & Kim, J. (2012). Conflict adjustment through domain-specific multiple cognitive control mechanisms. Brain Research, 1444, 55-64.
Kim, C., Johnson, N. F., & Gold, B. T. (2014)Conflict adaptation in prefrontal cortex: Now you see it, now you don’t. Cortex, 50, 76-85.
Klenberg, L., Korkman, M., & Lahti-Nuuttila, P.(2001). Differential development of attention and executive functions in 3- to 12—years-old Finish children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 20, 407-428.
Kray, J., Karbach, J., & Blaye, A. (2012). The influence of stimulus-set size on developmental changes in cognitive control and conflict adaptation. Acta Psychologica, 140, 119-128.
Larson, M. J., Clawson, A., Clayson, P. E., & South,M. (2012). Cognitive control and conflict adaptation similarities in children and adults. Developmental Neuropsychology, 37, 343-357.
Larson, M. J., Kaufman, D. A., & Perlstein, W.M. (2009a). Conflict adaptation and cognitive control adjustments following traumatic brain injury. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 15, 927-937.
Larson, M. J., Kaufman, D. A., & Perlstein, W.M. (2009b). Neural time course of conflict adaptation effects on the Stroop task. Neuropsychologia, 47, 663-670.
Larson, M. J., South, M., Clayson, P. E., &Clawson. (2012). Cognitive control and conflict adaptation in youth with high-functioning autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 440-448.
Latzman, R. D., Elkovitch, N., Young J., & Clark,L. A. (2010). The contribution of executive functioning to academic achievement among male adolescents. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 32, 455-462.
Lehto, J. E., Juujarvi, P., Kooistra, L., &Pulkkinen, L. (2003). Dimensions of executive functioning: Evidence from children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 21, 59-80.
Liu, T., Xio, T., Shi,J., Zhao, D., & Liu, J.(2011). Conflict control of children with different intellectual levels: An ERP study. Neuroscience Letters, 490, 101-106.
Mayr, U., Awh, E., & Laurey, P. (2003). Conflict adaptation effects in the absence of executive control. Nature Neuroscience, 6, 450-452.
McAuley, T., Christ, S. E., & White, D. A.(2011). Mapping the development of response inhibition in young children using a modified day-night task. Developmental Neuropsychology, 36, 539-551.
McClelland, M. M., Cameron, C. E., Connor, C. M., Farris, C. L., Jewkes, A. M., & Morrison,F. J. (2007). Links between behavioral regulation and preschoolers' literacy, vocabulary, and math skills. Developmental Psychology, 43, 947-959.
Miller, E. K., & Cohen, J. D. (2001). An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 24, 193-222.
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T.D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “Frontal Lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49-100.
Nieuwenhuis, S., Stins, J. F., Posthuma, D., Polderman, T. J. C., Boomsma, D. I., & deGeus, E. J. (2006). Accounting for sequential trial effects in the flanker task: Conflict adaptation or associative priming? Memory &Cognition, 34, 1260-1272.
Padmala, S., Bauer, A., & Pessoa, L.(2011). Negative emotion impairs conflict-driven executive control. Frontiers in Psychology, 2:192.
Razza, R. A., & Blair, C. (2009). Associations among false-belief understanding, executive function, and social competence. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 30, 332-343.
Riggs, N. R., Jahromi, L. B., Razza, R. P.,Dillworth-Bart, J. E., & Mueller, U. (2006). Executive function and the promotion of social-emotional competence, Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 27, 300-309.
Shin, G., & Kim, C. (2015). Neural correlates of cognitive style and flexible cognitive control. NeuroImage, 113, 78-85.
Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18, 643-662.
Stürmer, B., Leuthold, H., Soetens, E., Schröter,H., & Sommer, W. (2002). Control over location-based response activation in the Simon task: Behavioral and electrophysiological evidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 28, 1345-1363.
Waxer, M., & Morton, J. B. (2011). The development of future-oriented control: An electrophysiological investigation. NeuroImage, 56, 1648-1654.
Weldon, R. B., Mushlin, H., Kim, B., Sohn, M.H. (2013). The effect of working memory capacity on conflict monitoring. Acta Psychologica, 142, 6-14.
Wu, K. K., Chan, S. K., Leung, P. W. L., Liu,W., Leung, F. L. T., & Ng, R. (2011). Components and developmental differences of executive functioning for school-aged children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 36, 319-337.
Zelazo, P. D., Muller, U., Frye, D., & Marcovitch,S. (2003). The development of executive function in early childhood. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development. 68(Serial No. 274).