ISSN : 1229-0718
We investigated whether temporal processing can explain language development in school-aged children. Specifically, we tested the relationship between language functions and Temporal or Spatial Working Memory (SWM or TWM) functions in 2nd and 3rd grade elementary school students. Participants performed SWM and TWM tasks, as well as standardized WM tests in Korean-Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV. The Language Scale for School-Aged Children (LSSC) was conducted to evaluate language functions. Third graders showed significantly higher abilities in SWM, TWM, and the grammar domain of language function. Further, regression analyses revealed that TWM can explain significant variances in language functions measured by LSSC in all participants, after ruling out the effects of age, SWM, and general WM functions. Notably, for the third grader, the grammar domain was significantly explained by temporal processing functions measured by TWM, even after controlling for the effects of SWM, age, and general WM functions. In sum, our study demonstrates a novel finding that temporal processing can play a significant role in language development, especially in the domain of grammar in school-aged children.
교육부 (2015). 초등학교 국어 교육과정 및 해설서.
김금자, 황상심 (2014). 자폐범주성 장애아동의 문법판단능력과 관련 변인과의 상관연구. 특수교육저널: 이론과 실천. 15(2), 127-147.
김명희 (2003). 5-7세 아동의 문법성 판단능력:조사를 중심으로. 단국대학교 대학원 석사학위논문.
김영태, 홍경훈, 김경희, 장혜성, & 이주연(2009). 수용․표현 어휘력 검사(Receptive &Expressive Vocabulary Test, REVT). 서울: 서울장애인종합복지관.
김주희, & 오경자 (2014). ROC 분석을 통한 빠른 청각 처리 능력의 언어장애 진단 변별력과 임상적 유용성 연구. Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 33(1), 139-156.
김주희, 오경자, & 이경희 (2014). 아동의 언어능력과 빠른 청각 처리 능력간의 관계. 한국심리학회지: 일반, 33(1), 221-238.
김현자 & 조증열 (2001). 학령전 아동에서 음운인식, 시각지각 및 한글 읽기와의 관계. 한국심리학회지: 발달, 14(2), 15-28.
곽금주, 박혜원, & 김청택 (2001). 한국판 아동용 웩슬러 지능검사 (K- WISC-III). 서울:도서출판 특수교육.
곽금주, 오상우, 김청택 (2011). K-WISC-Ⅳ. 서울: 학지사.
이경희 & 오경자 (2010). 청각 시간처리 능력이 음운처리와 초기 읽기 능력에 미치는영향. 연세대학교 박사논문.
이숙, & 김화수 (2013). 청각적 문장이해 능력과 시각적 문장 이해능력의 발달 특성. 초등교육연구, 26(2), 97-124.
이윤경, 허현숙, 장승민 (2015). 학령기아동언어검사(Language Scale for School - aged Children: LSSC). 서울: 학지사.
이재분 (2001). 초등학생의 언어 능력 발달에 관한 연구. 한국 교육개발원 연구보고. RR 2001-2-1
이지연, & 곽금주 (2008). 영아기 어휘 종류와 아동초기 지적 능력 간의 관계. 한국심리학회지: 발달, 21(1), 1-14
장유경 & 엄윤주 (2003). 유아기 영어 학습경험이 상위언어능력의 발달에 미치는 영향. 한국심리학회지: 발달, 16(1), 69-81.
장유경 (2004). 한국 영아의 초기 어휘발달. 한국심리학회지: 발달, 17(4), 91-105.
정미란 & 황민아 (2007). 5~7세 아동과 성인의 문법성 판단: 조사 오류를 중심으로. 언어청각장애연구, 12(2), 139-159
최지은, 오소정, & 이윤경 (2015). 학령기 고기능 자폐범주성장애 아동의 언어특성. 특수교육, 14(2), 139-156.
하은진 (1999). 사동문과 피동문의 이해 및 표현발달에 관한 연구. 이화여자대학교 대학원 석사학위논문.
홍경훈 & 김영태 (2005). 종단연구를 통한 ‘말늦은아동 (late-talker)’의 표현어휘발달 예측요인 분석. Communication Sciences & Disorders, 10, 1-24.
Anglin, J. M., Miller, G. A., & Wakefield, P. C. (1993). Vocabulary Development: A Morphological Analysis. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 58(10)[238], v-165.
Bates, E., & MacWhinney, B. (1987). Competition, variation, and language learning. Mechanisms of language acquisition, 157-193.
Battelli, L., Pascual-Leone, A., & Cavanagh. P. (2007). The ‘when’ pathway of the right parietal lobe. Trends in cognitive sciences, 11(5), 204-210.
Benasich, A. A., & Tallal, P. (2002). Infant discrimination of rapid auditory cues predicts later language impairment. Behavioural brain research, 136(1), 31-49.
Bishop, D. V. (1994). Grammatical errors in specific language impairment: Competence or performance limitations?. Applied Psycholinguistics, 15(4), 507-550.
Boloh, Y., & Champaud, C. (1993). The past conditional verb form in French children:The role of semantics in late grammatical development. Journal of child language, 20(1), 169-189.
Cleave, P. L., & Rice, M. L. (1997). An examination of the morpheme BE in children with specific language impairment: The role of contractibility and grammatical form class. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 40(3), 480-492.
Cowan, N., Towse, J. N., Hamilton, Z., Saults, J. S., Elliott, E. M., Lacey, J., et al. (2003). Children's working-memory processes: a response-timing analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 132(1), 113.
Cumming, T. B., Marshall, R. S., & Lazar, R. M. (2013). Stroke, cognitive deficits, and rehabilitation: still an incomplete picture. International Journal of Stroke, 8(1), 38-45.
Davis, B., Christie, J., & Rorden, C. (2009). Temporal order judgments activate temporal parietal junction. Journal of Neuroscience, 29(10), 3182-3188.
Dispaldro, M., & Corradi, N. (2015). The effect of spatio-temporal distance between visual stimuli on information processing in children with Specific Language Impairment. Research in developmental disabilities, 45, 284-299.
Do, K. S., & Lee, E. J. (2006). Effects of text types and working memory on text comprehension in reading normal and reading deficient children. Korean Journal of Cognitive Science, 17.
Dronkers, N. F. (2000). The pursuit of brain -language relationships. Brain and Language, 71(1), 59-61.
Farzin, F., Rivera, S. M., & Whitney, D. (2011). Resolution of spatial and temporal visual attention in infants with fragile X syndrome. Brain, 134(11), 3355-3368.
Fridriksson, J., Bonilha, L., Baker, J. M., Moser, D., & Rorden, C. (2009). Activity in preserved left hemisphere regions predicts anomia severity in aphasia. Cerebral Cortex, 20(5), 1013-1019.
Frith, U. (1986). A developmental framework for developmental dyslexia. Annals of dyslexia, 36(1), 67-81.
Fry, A. F., & Hale, S. (1996). Processing speed, working memory, and fluid intelligence:Evidence for a developmental cascade. Psychological science, 7(4), 237-241.
Gabriel, A., Stefaniak, N., Maillart, C., Schmitz, X., & Meulemans, T. (2012). Procedural visual learning in children with specific language impairment. American Journal of Speech- Language Pathology, 21(4), 329-341.
Gathercole, S. E., Pickering, S. J., Ambridge, B., & Wearing, H. (2004). The structure of working memory from 4 to 15 years of age. Developmental psychology, 40(2), 177.
Goswami, U. (2011). A temporal sampling framework for developmental dyslexia. Trends in cognitive sciences, 15(1), 3-10.
Gottardo, A., Stanovich, K. E., & Siegel, L. S. (1996). The relationships between phonological sensitivity, syntactic processing, and verbal working memory in the reading performance of third-grade children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 63(3), 563-582.
Groth, K., Lachmann, T., Riecker, A., Muthmann, I., & Steinbrink, C. (2011). Developmental dyslexics show deficits in the processing of temporal auditory information in German vowel length discrimination. Reading and Writing, 24(3), 285-303.
Habib, M. (2000). The neurological basis of developmental dyslexia. Brain, 123(12), 2373-2399.
Hickok, G., & Poeppel, D. (2004). Dorsal and ventral streams: a framework for understanding aspects of the functional anatomy of language. Cognition, 92(1), 67-99.
Hoff-Ginsberg, E. (1997). Frog stories from four-year-olds: Individual differences in the expression of referential and evaluative content. Journal of Narrative & Life History, 39195.
Hood, M., & Conlon, E. (2004). Visual and auditory temporal processing and early reading development. Dyslexia, 10(3), 234-252.
Johnson, C. J., & Anglin, J. M. (1995). Qualitative developments in the content and form of children's definitions. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 38(3), 612-629.
Jung-Beeman, M. (2005). Bilateral brain processes for comprehending natural language. Trends in cognitive sciences, 9(11), 512-518.
Kail, R., & Salthouse, T. A. (1994). Processing speed as a mental capacity. Acta psychologica, 86(2), 199-225.
Kamhi, A. G. (1987). Metalinguistic abilities in language impaired children. Topics in Language Disorders, 7, 1-12.
Kamhi, A. G., & Koenig, L. A. (1985). Metalinguistic awareness in normal and language-disordered children. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 16(3), 199-210.
Kim, S-. Y., Tassone, F., Simon, T. J., & Rivera, S. M. (2014). Altered neural activity in the ‘when’ pathway during temporal processing in fragile X premutation carriers. Behavioural brain research, 261, 240-248.
Kover, S. T., Haebig, E., Oakes, A., McDuffie, A., Hagerman, R. J., & Abbeduto, L. (2014). Sentence comprehension in boys with autism spectrum disorder. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 23(3), 385-394.
Lee, M. L., & Lee, H. R. (2014). Characteristics of the spoken expository discourse of 3-4 grade school-aged children with language learning disabilities. Communication Sciences & Disorders, 19(4), 456-466.
Marton, K., & Schwartz, R. G. (2003). Working memory capacity and language processes in children with specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 46(5), 1138-1153.early reading development. Dyslexia, 10(3), 234-252.
Montgomery, J. W. (2002). Understanding the Language Difficulties of Children With Specific Language Impairments Does Verbal Working Memory Matter? American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 11(1), 77-91.
Montgomery, J. W., Magimairaj, B. M., &O’Malley, M. H. (2008). Role of working memory in typically developing children’s complex sentence comprehension. Journal of psycholinguistic research, 37(5), 331-354.
O'brien, I., Segalowitz, N., Freed, B., & Collentine, J. (2007). Phonological memory predicts second language oral fluency gains in adults. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 29(4), 557-581.
Oron, A., Szymaszek, A., & Szelag, E. (2015). Temporal information processing as a basis for auditory comprehension: clinical evidence from aphasic patients. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 50(5), 604-615.
Rice, M. L., Wexler, K., & Hershberger, S. (1998). Tense over time: The longitudinal course of tense acquisition in children with specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 41(6), 1412-1431.
Segalowitz, N. (1997). Individual differences in second language acquisition. Tutorials in bilingualism: Psycholinguistic perspectives, 85-112.
Steinbrink, C., Zimmer, K., Lachmann, T., Dirichs, M., & Kammer, T. (2014). Development of rapid temporal processing and its impact on literacy skill in primary school children. Child development, 85(4), 1711-1726.
Talcott, J. B., & Witton, C. (2002). A sensory-linguistic approach to normal and impaired reading development. In Basic functions of language, reading and reading disability(pp. 213-240). Springer US.
Tallal, P. (1980). Auditory temporal perception, phonics, and reading disabilities in children. Brain and language, 9(2), 182-198.
Teixeira, S., Machado, S., Paes, F., Velasques, B., Guilherme Silva, J., L Sanfim, A., ... & Cagy, M. (2013). Time perception distortion in neuropsychiatric and neurological disorders. CNS & Neurological Disorders-Drug Targets (Formerly Current Drug Targets-CNS &Neurological Disorders), 12(5), 567-582.
Thomson, J. M., Richardson, U., & Goswami, U. (2005). Phonological similarity neighborhoods and children’s short-term memory: Typical development and dyslexia. Memory & Cognition, 33(7), 1210-1219.
Wittmann, M., Burtscher, A., Fries, W., & von Steinbüchel, N. (2004). Effects of brain-lesion size and location on temporal-order judgment. Neuroreport, 15(15), 2401-2405.
Weismer, S. E. (1996). Capacity Limitations in Working Memory: The Impact on Lexical and Morphological Learning by Children with Language Impairment. Topics in Language Disorders, 17(1), 33-44.
Yang, Y., & Yim, D. (2017). The Relationship of Grammatical Judgment and Implicit Learning in 4-to 6-Year-Old Children with and without Specific Language Impairment. Communication Sciences & Disorders, 22(1), 35-46.
Yim, D., Yang, Y., Jo, Y., Lee, J., & Seong, J. (2015). Grammatical meta-linguistic awareness and executive functioning skills in preschool-age children with and without specific language impairment. Journal of Speech & Hearing Disorders, 24(24), 345-359.
Zelaznik, H. N., & Goffman, L. (2010). Generalized motor abilities and timing behavior in children with specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 53(2), 383-393.