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ISSN : 1229-0718
This article discusses some strands of theory and research in cognitive psychology that offer new insights into the workings of nonconscious mental structures and processes. Contemporary research in cognitive psychology reveals the impact of nonconscious mental structures and processes on the individual's conscious experience, thought, and action. ACT model and PDP framework afford a much wider scope for the cognitive unconscious than did the classic statements. Research on automatic processes, subliminal perception, implicit memory, and hypnosis indicates that events can affect mental functions even though they cannot be consciously perceived or remembered. Perceptual-cognitive and motoric skills are automatized thorugh experience, and thus rendered unconscious. The results of these researchs leads to a provisional taxonomy of nonconscious mental structures and processes constituting the domain of the cognitive unconscious. It suggest a tripartite division of the cognitive unconscious into unconscious mental processes operating on knowledge structures that may themselves be preconscious or subconscious.
The purpose of this study was to review the recent investigations of the self-efficacy. At the same time, the definition of the self-efficacy and the relationship of the self-efficacy with other variables, such as motivation, self-esteem and the locus of control was explored. Moreover, this study is valuable to consider the concept of the self-efficacy at the aspect of the developmental psychology and which kinds of study is required in the future efficacy study. Bandura suggested a hat if personal efficacy is changed by mediation, inevitably personal psychological aspect will be changed. Therefore, the self-efficacy will play a role in the course of child's development. The review study like this, will be expected to stimulate the follow-up study of efficacy.
This study examines the relationship of pubertal timing, body image, egocentrism, social adaptation, depression and antisocial behavior in early adolescence. The subjects were 383 boys (mean age : 13.50) and girls (mean age : 13.46) in first and second grade students of middle school. They were administered with the following six questionnaires to measure the pubertal timing, body image, imaginary audience, social adaptation (mastery and copying, impulse control, superior adjustment), depression and antisocial behavior. Results indicated that boys scored higher on antisocial behavior and girls scored higher on depression. In boys, depression, pubertal timing, impulse control, age, egocentrism were related to the antisocial behavior. In girls, depression, impulse control, age were correlated with the antisocial behavior. In both genders, depression was the most important determinant of antisocial behavior. The correlated variables of depression and antisocial behavior were different in each other sexes. These results were discussed and its implication and following study were suggested.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of positive reinforcement and fading procedure on letter learning of young preschool children. In order to pursue the purpose, three null hypotheses Mere established as follows : firstly, there is no significant difference in letter learning of young children between the reinforcement conditions ; secondly, there is no significant difference in letter learning of young children between the presentation conditions of reading materials ; finally, there is no significant interaction in letter learning of young children between the reinforcement conditions and presentation conditions of reading materials. A 2 × 4 factorial design with repeated measures on the second factor was employed. The 20 preschool subjects, identified as non-readers, were randomly assigned to the two levels of reinforcement conditions. Then, the reading responses of each subject in each group were repeatedly observed under the four different presentation conditions of reading materials. The four conditions were operationalized as flash-card reading programs that involved picture-letter cards, letter-sound cards, fading cards, and a control condition. And, these materials were computerized and presented individually to each subject through the 14" black and white monitor. The findings of the study revealed that : (1) there was no significant difference in letter learning of young children between the positive reinforcement and no-reinforcement conditions : (2) there was significant difference in letter learning between control condition and each of the three presentation conditions, between the picture-letter and letter-sound, and picture-letter and fading conditions, but not between letter-sound and fading procedure ; (3) there was an interaction effect between the two factors. Consequently, the main effects may be interpreted with partial modification : positive reinforcement was significantly more effective in the letter-sound condition ; there was no significant difference in the no-reinforcement condition between the picture-letter and control conditions ; there was significant difference in the positive reinforcement condition between the letter-sound and fading conditions, but not between the picture-letter and fading conditions.
The phenomena of empathy occupies an unusual place in contemporary psychological writings. It is considered to be a critical determinant of social interactions, ranging from the behavioral interchange between parent and child, the development of social understanding, positive social behavior such as altruism and helping, to the intimacy and effectiveness of communication in the dyadic relationship between therapist and client. Since most of studies on empathy were based on the American people, the effect of cultural variables was not fully investigated. Thus, it was postulated that an intercultural study comparing empathy for people from two radically different child-rearing environments would better highlight the possible effects of this variable. The responses to the Emotional Empathy Test and the Parent Behavior Questionnaire of 60 Korean university students were compared to those from 32 Canadian university students. Canadian students were more empathic than Korean students, and females more empathic than males from both groups. Support and control for parents of Canadian students were higher than those of Korean students. For the effect of parent behavior on empathy, significant correlations of parental control were appeared to be .42 to .54 for Korean male students only, and that of paternal support appeared to be .45 for Canadian female students only. These differences were discussed as attributed to different patterns of discipline and culture.
The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship of the family system and parent-adolescent communication with the adolescence egocentrism. Five hundreds and seventy Korean boys from the age of 13 to 23 answered the Adolescence Egocentrism Scale, the FACES III and the FAGI. The results revealed that imaginary audience of the middle and the late adolescents were higher than those of the early, which is consistent with the results of the previous Korean studies. The analyses of functional family system showed that the families with 16 or 17 year-old boys provided environments lacking in family cohesion and adaptability and also fathers of which used less open and more problemed communication. In the relationship of family system with the adolescence egocentrism, it was found that boys with the enmeshed level of family cohesion and the chaotic level of family adaptability were higher than those the lower level in adolescence egocentrism. The lower DFC score was, the less adolescence egocentrism was. In addition, the problemed communication with parents was positively associated with the adolescence egocentrism. These results suggest that family system and parent-adolescent communication is important in aquiring the skills and knowledge of interpersonal interactions and might be related with the adolescence egocentrism.
The present experiment tested whether 5- and 9-year-old children and adults have a cognitive bias to misinterpret the class-inclusion relations as the part-whole relations of collections when only minimal information about a hierarchical relation was given. Novel and familiar class-inclusion relations were taught using drawings of novel and familiar objects that were referred to by nonsense syllables. In all three age groups of subjects, the errors occurred almost exclusively on the upper level of hierarchy and most of the errors were to misinterpret class-inclusion relations as the part-whole relations of collections. In addition, 5- and 9-year-old children made more errors than adults on the upper level of hierarchy but not on the lower level. The results demonstrated that children and even the college students have a bias to misinterpret class-inclusion relations as the part-whole relations of collections, even though the latter have the bias in a much lesser degree.
This study investigated relationship between psychological types and perception orientation of kingergarten teachers. Subjects were 141 kindergarten teachers, within the age range 26-31. years, who employed by public or private kindergarten in Seoul. Teachers' psychological types were measured by Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, and perception orientation was evaluated by perception orientation scale. The results were Kindergarten teachers displayed a preponderance E, N, F, J characteristics of MBTI Kindergarten teachers showed positive perception orientation(58.2%) In general There were significant positive relation between psychological types and positive perception orientation, kindergarten teachers in particular, who were categorized as ST, SF, and NT on the functional psychological types, and both SJs and NTs in terms of temperament also revealed significant positive relation.
This study aimed to examine the development of preschool children's ability to seriate figures and events in different operational conditions such as composition versus insertion and forward versus backward directions. The influences of information processing load of the task, criterion of serration, cue for the formation of seriation rule, and task familiarity were major variables to be examined. Subjects of this study were 168 preschool children of 4, 5, and 6 years of age. 56 children in each age group were randomly assigned to forward composition, forward insertion, backward composition and backward insertion experimental groups. The task used in this study were 10 sets of figures and 10 sets of events. Each Set was composed of 5 pictures that are to be seriated in terms of length, size, and temporal succession. The following results were revealed from this study. First, around the ages of 5 and 6 preschool children acquire the ability of seriation in both figures and events, given tasks with approprate information processing load. Second, at the lower age levels seriation of figures develop earlier than seriation of events. Third, in event task in which the formation of seriation rule is more difficult than that in figure task, the performance level of insertion is higher than that of composition seriation. Fourth, forward seriation develops earlier than backward seriation in both figure and event tasks at lower age levels. However, at the age of 6 at which the seriation is completed the performance difference between the two directions of seriation disappears.
The purpose of this study is to investigate the age and difficulty-related differences in children's analogical reasoning performance and reasoning processes. For this purpose, 3(age)×4(difficult-level) factorial design with a repeated measure in difficult level was used. The subjects in this study were 144 children from an elementary school in seoul. There were 48 subjects(24 males and 24 females) in each of three age group: first, third, fifth grade. The task of this study was the picture which consisted of four sets of two types of analogies. The task was presented to a subject individually. The dependent measures were analogical reasoning performance score, inference process score, mapping process score, and application process score. The: collected data were statistically analyzed in terms of two way MANOVA with one factor repeated measurement, Scheffe test, and multiple regression. The results were as follows : (1) There were significant main effects of age and difficult-level. That is, the analogical reasoning performance and each component process increased with age, while the performance and the processes decreased with difficult-level. (2) There were significant interaction effects between age and difficult-level in analogical reasoning performance, in inference process, and also in mapping process. However, in application process, there wasn't any significant interaction effect between age and difficult-level. (3) The correlation between the analogical reasoning performance and each of three component processes were significant. Also, in terms of coefficients, application- and inference process predicted analogical reasoning performance well regardless of difficult level, while the predictor based on mapping process increased with difficult-level. Thus the mapping process seems to play an important role in difficult task.
The study of 120 4-year-old, 120 7-year-old children, investigated children's memory performance in relation to developmental changes knowledge structure, emergent strategy use, and social context. In 2 experiments, picture of items from two types of categories-slot-filler and taxonomic-were used. Experiment 1 contrasted three instruction conditions : Simple remembering, sorting pictures, and directions for strategy use. Experiment 2 provided three social interaction conditions : alone, with a peer, and an adult "expert." In Experiment 1 the younger children demonstrated better recall, clustering and shorter latencies for the slot-filler than the taxonomic list, while the 7-year-olds showed no such differences. Younger children performed better with sorting instruction than with simple remembering instruction on the slot-filler but not. the taxonomic list, again demonstrating the importance of slot-filler relations in item recovery. The results of Experiment 2 showed that all children benefitted from expert guidance on both types of lists. Younger children recalled more in the child-child condition than alone, suggesting the shared knowledge is a central feature of social interaction. Cultural attitudes toward learning may also influence performance.
This study investigates social environmental factors which influence children's affective and behavioral adjustment from low-income families. The children are 247 boys and girls aged 9-19 years coming from social welfare families in Seoul metropolitan area. As major familial factors, the effects of family breakup and marital discord are compared. That is, the adverse influence of unconventional family vs, conflict-ridden family on their offspring's development is assessed. The unconventional family is one that at: least one of the parents does not live with their children. Maladjustment is indicated by the degree of depression, anxiety, and delinquent behaviors. Parental supervision and children's academic achievement are measured as mediators. As a result, marital discord rather than family structure is a more effective predictor for children's maladjustment. Malevolent marital relationship associates more strongly with children's depression, anxiety, and delinquency than family breakup does. However, it is suggested from the unexpected weak association of family breakup in low-income families that family breakup in extremely low-class could work as a negative reinforces to family members because the existent adverse factors within family, such as marital conflict, family violence, drug abuse, alcoholism, et al., are got rid of with family breakup. In case of delinquency criterion, low predictability of discord and family breakup on delinquency is a presumed result supposed by the left-side skewedness of the distribution of delinquent behaviors.
The goodness of fit model of temperament and context relations implies when the temperamental characteristics are matched the contextual demands or expectations, positive exchanges occur between a person and a significant others, and in consequence positive development might be followed. In order to test the goodness of fit model, this study investigated 240 fifth graders from urban and rural areas and their mothers. Children's temperament were assessed with EAS devised by Buss and Plomin(1984). Children's temperament were assessed through two sources, children and their mothers. The level of satisfaction at children's temperament and maternal attitude were estimated by the mothers. The results showed that the. goodness of fit model was supported in the affectionate attitude. Mothers satisfying at their children's temperamental characteristics showed more affectionate attitude. As controlling attitude and promoting dependency attitude were explained by mothers' rating of children's temperament rather than by level of satisfaction, goodness of fit model was not supported.