본 연구는 세월호 재난 이후 2년이 지난 시점에서 세월호 재난으로 자녀를 잃은 부모의 내적 경험을 탐색하고자 수행되었다. 자료수집은 자녀를 잃은 부모 17명을 대상으로 개별 심층면담을 통해 이루어졌다. 수집된 심층면담 자료는 Krippendorff(2004)가 제안한 내용분석 절차에 따라 분석되었다. 연구결과는 4가지 차원(‘심리정서적 차원’, ‘신체적 차원’, ‘인지적 차원’, ‘행동적 차원’), 25개 범주, 94개의 의미내용이 도출되었다. 심리 정서적 차원은 ‘무기력한 일상생활’, ‘우울의 늪에 빠짐’, ‘분노와 원망 삭히기’, ‘공황증상’, ‘자살충동에 휩싸임’, ‘예민해지고 의심이 많아짐’, ‘쉽게 짜증과 화를 내며 신경질적이게 됨’, ‘사회적 공감능력의 상실’ 8가지 범주, 신체적 차원은 ‘시력, 청력 문제’, ‘신경성 두통 및 팔, 다리, 허리 통증’, ‘소화기 계통 이상 증상’, ‘불면’, ‘면역력, 체력 저하’, ‘여성 질환’, ‘갑상선 이상’, ‘혈압 문제’, ‘치과 문제’, ‘췌장염’ 10가지 범주, 인지적 차원은 ‘기억력 감퇴’, ‘집중력 저하’, ‘죽음에 대한 의미 변화’, ‘내 삶의 의미에 대한 변화’ 4가지 범주, 행동적 차원은 ‘불규칙한 식습관’, ‘흡연량의 증가’, ‘음주에 관한 절제력 상실’ 3가지 범주가 도출되었다. 본 연구결과를 바탕으로 논의와 시사점을 제시하였다.
The current study aimed to explore the internal experiences and lives of the bereaved parents of the Sewol Ferry Disaster. Interview data were collected 2 years after the Sewol Ferry Disaster from 17 parents who lost their adolescent child. The interviews were analyzed using a content analysis, and the results were classified by 4 dimensions (‘psychological-emotional’, ‘physical’, ‘cognitive’ and ‘behavioral’), and 25 categories with 94 meaning contents emerged under these dimensions. The psychological-emotional dimension included lethargy, depressive moods, anger suppression, panic symptoms, suicidal thoughts and attempts, increase in sensitiveness and suspicion, irritability, and decline inempathy. The physical one included loss of sight and hearing, chronic pain, amnesia, and other significant physical deterioration. The cognitive one included decline in memory, attention deficit, transition of the meaning of death, and change in the meaning of life. The behavioral one included poor diet, increase in smoking, and self-regulatory failure in alcohol consumption.
416세월호참사 작가기록단 (2016). 다시 봄이올 거예요. 창비.
경기도교육청 약전작가단, 경기도교육청 (2016). 416 단원고 약전 세트. 굿플러스북
고은채, 김순천, 명숙, 미류, 박현진, 박희정, 배경내, 유해정, 이호연, 정미현, 정주연, 홍은전 (2015). 금요일엔 돌아오렴: 240일간의 세월호 유가족 육성기록. 창비.
김순진, 김 환 (2000). 외상 후 스트레스 장애. 서울: 학지사.
노컷뉴스 (2016. 7. 20). “세월호 2년, 단원고유가족 56% 여전히 트라우마 호소”.
세월호 특별조사위원회 (2016), 4.16 세월호참사 피해자지원 실태조사 결과발표회자료집.
송주형 (2015). 구술을 통한 재난 사고의 기록화. 기록학연구, 44, 155-197.
박기묵 (2015). 세월호 참사 희생자 부모들의심리적 외상에 관한 기술적 접근. 한국콘텐츠학회논문지, 15(9), 134-145.
안현의 (2007). 복합외상(complex trauma)의 개념과 경험적 근거. 한국심리학회지: 일반, 26(1), 105-119.
이선영 (2011). 대형재난사고 유가족의 생활경험 연구. 한국사회복지교육, 15, 109-144.
이정섭, 김수지 (1994). 암으로 자녀를 잃은 가족의 경험에 대한 질적 연구. 대한간호학회지, 24(3), 423, 413-431
장재현, 이기학 (2013). 외상경험에 의한 심리적 어려움과 회복요인에 대한 개념도 연구: 천안함 피격사건 생존장병을 중심으로. 상담학연구, 14(2), 1145-1164.
조선일보닷컴 (2016. 4. 4). “세월호 일반인 유족 ‘국민 미움 안 받았으면’”
조선화, 강영신 (2015). 애도 회피에 따른 침투적 반추가 심리적 성장에 이르는 과정에서 의도적 반추 및 자기노출의 역할. 한국심리학회지: 상담 및 심리치료, 27(3), 641-663.
진실의 힘 세월호 기록팀 (2016). 세월호, 그날의 기록. 진실의 힘.
Abbott, D. A. (2009). Violent death: A qualitative study of israeli and palestinian families. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 14(2), 117-128.
Alam, R., Barrera, M., D'Agostino, N., Nicholas, D. B., & Schneiderman, G. (2012). Bereavement experiences of mothers and fathers over time after the death of a child due to cancer. Death studies, 36(1), 1-22.
Armour, M. (2007). Violent death: Understanding the context of traumatic and stigmatized grief. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 14(4), 53-90.
Bonanno, G. A., Papa, A., Lalande, K., Zhang, N., & Noll, J. G. (2005). Grief processing and deliberate grief avoidance: A prospective comparison of bereaved spouses and parents in the United States and the People's Republic of China. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(1), 86-98.
Boscarino, J. A. (2008). Psychobiologic predictors of disease mortality after psychological trauma:implications for research and clinical surveillance. The Journal of Nervous and Mental disease, 196(2), 100-107.
Boss, P. (2006). Loss, trauma, and resilience:Therapeutic work with ambiguous loss. WW Norton & Company.
Boss, P., & Mulligan, C. (2003). Family stress:Classic and contemporary readings. Sage.
Boss, P., & Yeats, J. R. (2014). Ambiguous loss:A complicated type of grief when loved ones disappear. Bereavement Care, 33(2), 63-69.
Bowlby, J. (1980). Loss: Sadness and depression (Vol. 3). Basic Books.
Brent, D., Melhem, N., Donohoe, M. B., & Walker, M. (2009). The incidence and course of depression in bereaved youth 21 months after the loss of a parent to suicide, accident, or sudden natural death. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166(7), 786-794.
Cacciatore, J., Lacasse, J. R., Lietz, C. A., & McPherson, J. (2014). A parent's tears:Primary results from the traumatic experiences and resiliency study. OMEGA-Journal of Death and Dying, 68(3), 183-205.
Cain, A. C., Fast, I., & Erickson, M. E. (1964). Children's disturbed reactions to the death of a sibling. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 34(4), 741-752.
Carty, J., O'donnell, M. L., & Creamer, M. (2006). Delayed-onset PTSD: A prospective study of injury survivors. Journal of Affective Disorders, 90(2), 257-261.
Chen, J. H., Bierhals, A. J., Prigerson, H. G., Kasl, S. V., Mazure, C. M., &Jacobs, S. (1999). Gender differences in the effects of bereavement-related psychological distress in health outcomes. Psychological Medicine, 29(2), 367-380.
Cleiren, M. P. (1993). Bereavement and adaptation:A comparative study of the aftermath of death. Taylor & Francis.
Doka, K. J. (2001). Grief, loss and caregiving. In Kenneth J. Doka and Joyce D. Davidson (Eds), Caregiving and Loss: Family Needs and Professional Responses (pp. 215-230). Washington, DC: The Hospice Foundation of America
Doka, K. J. (2011). Helping bereaved children: A handbook for practitioners. N. B. Webb (Ed.). Guilford Press.
Dyregrov, K., Dyregrov, A., & Kristensen, P. (2015). Traumatic bereavement and terror:The psychosocial impact on parents and siblings 1.5 years after the July 2011 terror killings in Norway. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 20(6), 556-576.
Fullerton, C. S., Ursano, R. J., Vance, K., & Wang, L. (2000). Debriefing following trauma. Psychiatric Quarterly, 71(3), 259-276.
Gamino, Kenneth W. Sewell, Larry W. Easterling, L. (2000). Scott and White Grief Study-Phase 2: Toward an adaptive model of grief. Death Studies, 24(7), 633-660.
Gilmer, M. J., Foster, T. L., Vannatta, K., Barrera, M., Davies, B., Dietrich, M. S., & Gerhardt, C. A. (2012). Changes in parents after the death of a child from cancer. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 44(4), 572-582.
Ho, J. E., Paultre, F., & Mosca, L. (2002). Lifestyle changes in new yorkers after september 11, 2001 (data from the post-disaster heart attack prevention program). The American Journal of Cardiology, 90(6), 680-682.
Janoff-Bulman, R. (2010). Shattered assumptions. Simon and Schuster.
Kaltman, S., & Bonanno, G. A. (2003). Trauma and bereavement: Examining the impact of sudden and violent deaths. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 17(2), 131-147.
Kaniasty, K., & Norris, F. H. (2008). Longitudinal linkages between perceived social support and posttraumatic stress symptoms: Sequential roles of social causation and social selection. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 21(3), 274-281.
Keesee, N. J., Currier, J. M., & Neimeyer, R. A. (2008). Predictors of grief following the death of one's child: The contribution of finding meaning. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 64(10), 1145-1163.
Krippendorff, K. (2004). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology. Sage.
Li, J., Laursen, T. M., Precht, D. H., Olsen, J., & Mortensen, P. B. (2005). Hospitalization for mental illness among parents after the death of a child. New England Journal of Medicine, 352(12), 1190-1196.
Li, J., Precht, D. H., Mortensen, P. B., & Olsen, J. (2003). Mortality in parents after death of a child in Denmark: a nationwide follow-up study. The Lancet, 361(9355), 363-367.
Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry (Vol. 75). Sage.
Malkinson, R. (2007). Cognitive grief therapy:Constructing a rational meaning to life following loss. WW Norton & Company.
Miles, M. S., & Crandall, E. K. B. (1983). The search for meaning and its potential for affecting growth in bereaved parents:. In coping with life Crises (pp. 235-243). Springer US.
Moriarty, H. J., Carroll, R., & Cotroneo, M. (1996). Differences in bereavement reactions within couples following death of a child. Research in Nursing & Health, 19(6), 461-469.
Murphy, S. A., Braun, T., Tillery, L., Cain, K. C., Johnson, L. C., & Beaton, R. D. (1999). PTSD among bereaved parents following the violent deaths of their 12‐to 28‐year‐old children: A longitudinal prospective analysis. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 12(2), 273-291.
Murphy, S. A., Clark Johnson, L., Wu, L., Fan, J. J., & Lohan, J. (2003). Bereaved parents'outcome 4 to 60 months after their children's deaths by accident, suicide, or homicide: A comparative study demonstrating differences. Death Studies, 27(1), 39-61.
Murphy, S. A., Tapper, V. J., Johnson, L. C., & Lohan, J. (2003). Suicide ideation among parents bereaved by the violent deaths of their children. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 24(1), 5-25.
Nakajima, S., Ito, M., Shirai, A., & Konishi, T. (2012). Complicated grief in those bereaved by violent death: The effects of post-traumatic stress disorder on complicated grief. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 14(2), 210-214.
Neimeyer, R. A. (1998). Death anxiety research:The state of the art. Omega-Journal of Death and Dying, 36(2), 97-120.
Ozer, E. J., Best, S. R., Lipsey, T. L., &Weiss, D. S. (2003). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 129(1), 52-73.
Padgett, D. K. (1998). Qualitative methods in social work research: Challenges and rewards. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage.
Parappully, J., Rosenbaum, R., & Daele, L. Van Den, & Nzewi, E. (2002). Thriving after trauma: The experience of parents of murdered children. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 42(1), 33-70.
Parkes, C. M. (1996). Bereavement. MEDICINEABINGDON-UK EDITION, 24, 73-74.
Pennebaker, J. W., & Harber, K. D. (1993). A social stage model of collective coping: The Loma Prieta earthquake and the Persian Gulf War. Journal of Social Issues, 49(4), 125-145.
Qin, P., & Mortensen, P. B. (2003). The impact of parental status on the risk of completed suicide. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60(8), 797-802.
Rando, T. A. (1985). Bereaved parents: Particular difficulties, unique factors, and treatment issues. Social Work, 30(1), 19-23.
Rando, T. A. (1986). The unique issues and impact of the death of a child: Parental loss of a child, Research Press Champaign, IL
Rando, T. A. (1993). Treatment of complicated mourning. Research Press.
Rando, T. A. (1997). Vicarious bereavement. death and the quest for meaning: Essays in honor of Herman Feifel, 257-274.
Rando, T. A. (2000). On the experience of traumatic stress in anticipatory and post-death mourning. In T. A. Rando (Ed.), Clinical dimensions of anticipatory mourning: Theory and practice in working with the dying, their loved ones, and their caregivers. Champaign, Illinois: Research Press.
Rogers, C. H., Floyd, F. J., Seltzer, M. M., Greenberg, J., & Hong, J. (2008). Long-term effects of the death of a child on parents’adjustment in midlife. Journal of Family Psychology, 22(2), 203-211.
Rossetto, K. R. (2015). Bereaved parents’ strategies and reactions when supporting their surviving children. Western Journal of Communication, 79(5), 533-554.
Sanders, C. M. (1988). Risk factors in bereavement outcome. Journal of Social Issues, 44(3), 97-111.
Schneider, J. (1984). Stress, loss, and grief. University Park Press.
Simeon, D., Greenberg, J., Nelson, D., Schmeidler, J., & Hollander, E. (2005). Dissociation and posttraumatic stress 1 year after the world trade center disaster: follow-up of a longitudinal survey. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 66(2), 231-237.
Stroebe, M., Schut, H., & Stroebe, W. (2007). Health outcomes of bereavement. The Lancet, 370(9603), 1960-1973.
Stroebe, W., Zech, E., Stroebe, M. S., & Abakoumkin, G. (2005). Does social support help in bereavement?. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 24(7), 1030-1050.
Thompson, A. L., Miller, K. S., Barrera, M., Davies, B., Foster, T. L., Gilmer, M. J., & Gerhardt, C. A. (2011). A qualitative study of advice from bereaved parents and siblings. Journal of Social Work in End-of-Life &Palliative Care, 7(2-3), 153-172.
Wilmer, H. A. (1982). Vietnam and madness:Dreams of schizophrenic veterans. Journal of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis, 10(1), 47-66.
Wolin, S. J., & Wolin, S. (1993). The resilient self, New York: Villard Books.
Worden, J. (1983), Grief counselling and grief therapy, London: Tavistock.
Worden, J. W. (2002). Bereavement care: Principles & practice of palliative care & supportive oncology. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 813-818.
Wortman, C. B., & Silver, R. C. (1989). The myths of coping with loss. Journal of Consulting and Clinical psychology, 57(3), 349-357.
