본 연구는 트라우마를 경험한 한국의 대학생 728명을 대상으로 불안애착, 회피애착, 지각된 사회적 지지, 외상 후 스트레스(PTSD) 증상 및 외상 후 성장(PTG) 간의 구조적 관계에서 반추(침습적 반추, 의도적 반추)의 매개효과를 살펴보았다. 또한 현재 고통스러운 사건의 유형이 트라우마 사건인지 생활스트레스 사건인지에 따라 경로의 차이를 확인하였다. 이를 위해 침습적 반추를 지나 의도적 반추에 영향을 미치는 경로가 포함된 가설적 연구모형 및 침습적 반추에서 의도적 반추를 지나는 경로가 제외된 경쟁모형을 각각 설정했다. 연구결과 첫째, 불안애착 및 회피애착과 PTSD 증상 및 외상 후 성장의 관계에 침습적 반추의 단일 매개효과가 통계적으로 유의했다. 또한, 불안애착 및 회피애착과 외상 후 성장의 관계에 침습적 반추와 의도적 반추의 이중 매개효과가 통계적으로 유의하였다. 둘째, 불안애착이 침습적 반추에 미치는 효과는 생활스트레스 사건 집단이 트라우마 사건 집단에 비해 큰 것으로 확인되었다. 또한, 침습적 반추가 의도적 반추에 미치는 효과는 트라우마 사건 집단이 생활스트레스 사건 집단보다 큰 것으로 나타났다. 끝으로 본 연구의 결과를 참고하여 본 연구의 의의와 한계점에 대하여 논의하였다.
This study investigated the mediating effect of rumination on the structural relationship of anxiety attachment, avoidance attachment, perceived social support, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, and posttraumatic growth (PTG) in 728 Korean college students who had experienced traumatic or stressful events. In addition, differences between event type (traumatic versus life stress) were examined. The results indicated that the single mediating effect of intrusive rumination was statistically significant in relation to anxiety attachment, avoidance attachment, PTSD symptoms, and PTG. Moreover, the dual mediating effect of intrusive rumination and deliberate rumination was statistically significant in relation to anxiety attachment, avoidance attachment and PTG. Finally, the effect of anxiety attachment on intrusive rumination was found to be greater in the life stress event group than in the traumatic event group. Based on these results, implications and future research are presented.
김광은 (2004). 성인 애착 유형과 요인에 따른 성격 특성 및 스트레스 대처방식. 한국심리학회지: 상담 및 심리치료, 16(1), 53-69.
김대호 (2005). 외상후 스트레스 장애에 대한 안구운동 민감소실 및 재처리 요법. 신경정신의학, 44(2), 147-51.
김성현 (2004). 친밀 관계 경험 검사 개정판 타당화 연구: 확증적 요인분석과 문항 반응 이론을 중심으로. 서울대학교 석사학위논문.
김종운, 김지현 (2013). 대학생의 부모애착과 사회적 지지가 대학생활적응에 미치는 영향. 한국콘텐츠학회논문지, 13(9), 248-259.
김지윤, 이동훈, 김시형 (2018). PTSD 증상의 조건비율에 근거한한국 성인의 트라우마 경험에 관한 연구. 한국심리학회지: 문화및사회문제, 24(3), 365-383.
박선정 (2015). 관계 상실 경험 대학생이 지각한 사회적 지지가 외상 후 성장에 미치는 영향: 의도적 반추의 매개효과. 학교사회복지, 30(0), 71-94.
박선정, 정규석 (2016). 부모상실경험 대학생이 지각한 사회적 지지가 외상 후 성장에 미치는 영향-가족탄력성, 의도적 반추, 적극적 대처의 매개효과를 중심으로. 청소년복지연구, 18(2), 115-140.
서영석, 조화진, 안하얀, 이정선 (2012a). 청소년들의 외상사건 경험. 교육심리연구, 26 (3), 78-816.
서영석, 조화진, 안하얀, 이정선 (2012b). 한국인이 경험한 외상사건: 종류 및 발생률. 한국심리학회지: 상담 및 심리치료, 24(3), 671-701.
성선진, 이재신 (2000). 청소년의 자아존중감 및 사회적 지지와 스트레스 대처 방식과의 관계. 청주대학교 학생생활연구, 22(0), 53-70.
송승훈 (2007). 한국판 외상 후 성장 척도 (K-PTGI) 의 신뢰도와 타당도. 석사, 충남대학교 대학원.
송승훈, 이홍석, 박준호, 김교헌 (2009). 한국판 외상후 성장 척도의 타당도 및 신뢰도 연구. 한국심리학회지: 건강, 14(1), 193-214.
신선영, 정남운 (2012). 삶의 의미와 사회적 지지가 외상 후 성장에 미치는 영향: 성장적 반추를 매개 변인으로. 인간이해, 33 (2), 217-235.
신준섭, 이영분 (1999). 사회적 지지가 실직자의 심리사회적 안녕감에 미치는 영향에 관한 연구. 한국사회복지학, 37(0), 241- 269.
신지영, 이동훈, 이수연, 한윤선 (2015). 대학생이 경험하는 외상사건 유형에 관한 연구. 놀이치료연구, 19(2), 69-95.
안현의 (2005). 청소년의 심리적 외상에 관한 탐색적 연구. 한국심리학회지: 상담 및 심리치료, 17(1), 217-231.
안현의, 주혜선, 민지원, 심기선 (2013). 한국판 사건관련 반추 척도(K-ERRI)의 타당화. 인지행동치료, 13(1), 149-172.
양귀화, 김종남 (2014). 외상 후 성장 과정에 대한 분석. 한국심리학회지: 건강, 19(4), 1041-1065.
양난미, 이은경, 송미경, 이동훈. (2015). 외상을 경험한 여자 대학생의 성인애착과 외상 후 성장의 관계에서 스트레스 대처방식의 매개효과. 상담학연구, 16(1), 175-197.
양수진, 이정윤 (2012). 대학생의 부모애착이 성인애착에 미치는 영향: 자아분화의 매개효과. 상담학연구, 13(4), 1921-1935.
유연화, 이신혜, 조용래 (2010). 자기자비, 생활스트레스, 사회적 지지와 심리적 증상들의 관계. 인지행동치료, 10(2), 43-59.
유희정 (2015). 사별 경험 대학생의 사회적 지지 지각이 외상 후 성장에 미치는 영향에서 의도적 반추의 매개효과. 재활심리연구, 22(2), 323-339.
윤명숙, 김남희 (2013). 대학생의 상실경험과 대학생활 적응 관계에 대한 성인애착의 매개효과. 정신보건과 사회사업, 41(1), 60- 89.
은헌정, 권태완, 이선미, 김태형, 최말례, 조수진. (2005). 한국판 사건충격척도 수정판의 신뢰도 및 타당도 연구. 대한신경정신의학회지, 44(3), 303-310.
이동훈, 김시형, 이수연, 최수정 (2018). 트라우마를 경험한 대학생의 지각된 사회적지지, 정서적 자기노출이 외상 후 성장에 미치는 영향. 한국심리학회지: 상담 및 심리치료, 30(2), 371-395.
이동훈, 김지윤, 이덕희, 강민수 (2018). DSM 진단기준과 대인 및 비대인 외상사건에 따른 성인의 PTSD 증상, 심리적 디스트레스, 정서조절곤란의 차이. 한국심리학회지: 상담 및 심리치료, 30(3), 741-773.
이동훈, 이수연, 윤기원, 김시형, 최수정 (2017). 성별에 따른 외상사건 경험이 PTSD 증상 및 외상 후 성장과의 관계에 미치는 영향. 한국심리학회지: 상담 및 심리치료, 29(1), 227-253.
이수림 (2015). 외상 경험 및 인지적 정서조절전략이 외상후스트레스장애와 외상후성장에 미치는 영향. 인문학논총, 39(0), 93- 124.
이순묵 (2000). 요인분석의 기초. 교육과학사.
이영미, 민하영, 이윤주. (2004). 부모간의 갈등 및 성인애착에 따른 대학생의 자아탄력성. 한국가정관리학회지, 22(4), 63-72.
이현수 (2008). 긍정적 심리학. 서울: 시그마프레스.
전겸구, 김교헌 (1991). 대학생용 생활 스트레스 척도의 개발. 한국심리학회지: 임상, 10(1), 137-158.
주혜선, 정희진, 하정, 최선재, 안현의. (2009). 외상 유형에 따른 외상후 스트레스 반응 양상의 차이 연구. 한국심리학회 학술대회 자료집, 2009(1), 454-455.
최승미 (2008). 외상후성장 관련 변인의 탐색. 고려대학교대학원 박사학위논문.
최윤경 (2014). 유사외상 상황에서 양측성 안구운동, 심상노출 및 심상재각본이 침습적 기억에 미치는 영향. 인지행동치료, 14 (2), 165-190.
하진의 (2013). 성인 애착 불안이 외상 후 스트레스와 성장에 미치는 영향: 자기자비와 반추의 매개효과. 상담학연구, 14(6), 3433-3452.
하진의 (2014). 불안정 애착이 외상 후 성장에 미치는 영향: 의도적 반추와 사회적 지지의 매개효과-제주지역을 중심으로. 탐라문화, 44(0), 175-210.
현숙자 (2017). 대학생의 역경후성장 모형에서 자기자비의 조절효과 검증. 한국청소년연구, 28(1), 183-210.
Ainsworth, M. S. (1979). Infant-mother attachment. American Psychologist, 34(10), 932-937.
Allen, J. G. (2005). Coping with trauma: Hope through understanding (2nd ed.), Washington, DC: American Psychiatry Publishing.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5®). American Psychiatric Pub.
Arntz, A. (2011). Imagery rescripting for personality disorders. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 18(4), 466-481.
Besser, A., & Neria, Y. (2010). The effects of insecure attachment orientations and perceived social support on posttraumatic stress and depressive symptoms among civilians exposed to the 2009 Israel–Gaza war: A follow-up Cross-Lagged panel design study. Journal of Research in Personality, 44(3), 335-341.
Besser, A., & Neria, Y. (2012). When home isn’t a safe haven: Insecure attachment orientations, perceived social support, and PTSD symptoms among Israeli evacuees under missile threat. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 4(1), 34-46.
Blackburn, L., & Owens, G. P. (2016). Rumination, resilience, and posttraumatic stress disorder symptom severity among veterans of Iraq and Afghanistan. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 25(2), 197-209.
Bolger, N., DeLongis, A., Kessler, R. C., & Schilling, E. A. (1989). Effects of daily stress on negative mood. Journal of personality and social psychology, 57(5), 808-818.
Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Retrospect and prospect. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 52(4), 664-678.
Brewin, C. R. (2006). Understanding cognitive behaviour therapy: A retrieval competition account. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44(6), 765-784.
Briere, J. N., & Scott, C. (2014). Principles of trauma therapy: A guide to symptoms, evaluation, and treatment (DSM-5 update). Sage Publications.
Brown, G. W., & Harris, T. (2012). Social origins of depression: A study of psychiatric disorder in women. Routledge.
Brosschot, J. F., Pieper, S., & Thayer, J. F. (2005). Expanding stress theory: Prolonged activation and perseverative cognition. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30(10), 1043-1049.
Byrne, B. M. (2004). Testing for multigroup invariance using AMOS graphics: A road less traveled. Structural Equation Modeling, 11(2), 272-300.
Calhoun, L. G., Cann, A., & Tedeschi, R. G. (2010). The posttraumatic growth model: Sociocultural considerations. In T. Weiss & R. Berger (Eds.), Posttraumatic growth and culturally competent practice: Lessons learned from around the globe (pp. 1-14). Hoboken, NJ, US: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Calhoun, L. G., Cann, A., Tedeschi, R. G., & McMillan, J. (2000). A correlational test of the relationship between posttraumatic growth, religion, and cognitive processing. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13(3), 521-527.
Calhoun, L. G., & Tedeschi, R. G. (2001). Posttraumatic growth: The positive lessons of loss. In R. A. Neimeyer (Ed.), Meaning reconstruction and the experience of loss (pp. 157-172). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Campbell, L., Simpson, J. A., Boldry, J., & Kashy, D. A. (2005). Perceptions of conflict and support in romantic relationships: The role of attachment anxiety. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(3), 510-531.
Cann, A., Calhoun, L. G., Tedeschi, R. G., & Solomon, D. T. (2010). Posttraumatic growth and depreciation as independent experiences and predictors of well-being. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 15(3), 151-166.
Cann, A., Calhoun, L. G., Tedeschi, R. G., Triplett, K. N., Vishnevsky, T., & Lindstrom, C. M. (2011). Assessing posttraumatic cognitive processes: The event related rumination inventory. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 24(2), 137-156.
Carpenter, K. M., Fowler, J. M., Maxwell, G. L., & Andersen, B. L. (2010). Direct and buffering effects of social support among gynecologic cancer survivors. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 39(1), 79-90.
Chemtob, C. M., & Carlson, J. G. (2004). Psychological effects of domestic violence on children and their mothers. International Journal of Stress Management, 11(3), 209-226.
Cheung, M. W. (2007). Comparison of approaches to constructing confidence intervals for mediating effects using structural equation models. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 14(2), 227-246.
Cohen, S., & Hoberman, H. M. (1983). Positive events and social supports as buffers of life change stress. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 13(2), 99-125.
Cohen, S., & Syme, S. L. (1985). Issues in the study and Application of Social Support. In Cohen, S., & Syme, S. L.(Eds.), Social support and Health. San Franciso: Academic Press.
Cohen, O., & Katz, M. (2015). Grief and growth of bereaved siblings as related to attachment style and flexibility. Death Studies, 39(3), 158-164.
Copeland, W. E., Keeler, G., Angold, A., & Costello, E. J. (2007). Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress in childhood. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(5), 577-584.
Davey, G. C. (1989). UCS revaluation and conditioning models of acquired fears. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 27(5), 521-528.
Davis, D., Shaver, P. R., & Vernon, M. L. (2003). Physical, emotional, and behavioral reactions to breaking up: The roles of gender, age, emotional involvement, and attachment style. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(7), 871-884.
Dekel, R. (2007). Posttraumatic distress and growth among wives of prisoners of war: The contribution of husbands’ posttraumatic stress disorder and wives’ own attachment. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 77(3), 419-426.
Diamond, L. M., Hicks, A. M., & Otter-Henderson, K. D. (2008). Every time you go away: Changes in affect, behavior, and physiology associated with travel-related separations from romantic partners. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(2), 385-403.
Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38(4), 319-345.
Elwood, L. S., & Williams, N. L. (2007). PTSD–related cognitions and romantic attachment style as moderators of psychological symptoms in victims of interpersonal trauma. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 26(10), 1189-1209.
Fraley, R. C., Waller, N. G., & Brennan, K. A. (2000). An item response theory analysis of self-report measures of adult attachment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(2), 350-365.
Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R., Turner, H., & Hamby, S. L. (2005). The victimization of children and youth: A comprehensive, national survey. Child Maltreatment, 10(1), 5-25.
Foa, E. B., Keane, T. M., Friedman, M. J., & Cohen, J. A. (Eds.). (2008). Effective Treatments for PTSD: practice guidelines from the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies. New York: Guilford Press.
Frazier, P., Anders, S., Perera, S., Tomich, P., Tennen, H., Park, C., & Tashiro, T. (2009). Traumatic events among undergraduate students: Prevalence and associated symptoms. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56(3), 450-460.
Gallagher, H. C., Richardson, J., Forbes, D., Harms, L., Gibbs, L., Alkemade, N., MacDougall, C., Waters, E., Block, K., Lusher, D., Baker, E., & Bryant R. A. (2016). Mental health following separation in a disaster: The role of attachment. Journal of Taumatic Stress, 29(1), 56-64.
Garnefski, N., Kraaij, V., & Spinhoven, P. (2001). Negative life events, cognitive emotion regulation and emotional problems. Personality and Individual differences, 30(8), 1311-1327.
Gold, S. D., Marx, B. P., Soler-Baillo, J. M., & Sloan, D. M. (2005). Is life stress more traumatic than traumatic stress?. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 19(6), 687-698.
Goodman, L. A., Corcoran, C., Turner, K., Yuan, N., & Green, B. L. (1998). Assessing traumatic event exposure: General issues and preliminary findings for the Stressful Life Events Screening Questionnaire. Journal of Traumatic Stress: Official Publication of The International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, 11(3), 521-542.
Granqvist, P., Mikulincer, M., Gewirtz, V., & Shaver, P. R. (2012). Experimental findings on god as an attachment figure: Normative processes and moderating effects of internal working models. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103(5), 804-818.
Janoff-Bulman, R. (2010). Shattered assumptions. Simon and Schuster.
Horowitz, M., Wilner, N., & Alvarez, W. (1979). Impact of Event Scale: A measure of subjective stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 41(3), 209-218.
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: a Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1-55.
Kelley, L. P., Weathers, F. W., McDevitt‐Murphy, M. E., Eakin, D. E., & Flood, A. M. (2009). A comparison of PTSD symptom patterns in three types of civilian trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress: Official Publication of The International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, 22(3), 227-235.
Kilmer, R. P. (2006). Resilience and posttraumatic growth in children. Handbook of posttraumatic growth: Research and practice, New York: Psychology Press.
Kline, R. B. (2015). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). New York: Guilford.
Lazarus, R. S., Delongis, A,, Folkman, S., & Gruen, R. (1985). Stress and adaptional measures. American Psychologist, 40(7), 770-779.
Long, M. E., Elhai, J. D., Schweinle, A., Gray, M. J., Grubaugh, A. L., & Frueh, B. C. (2008). Differences in posttraumatic stress disorder diagnostic rates and symptom severity between Criterion A1 and non-Criterion A1 stressors. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22(7), 1255-1263.
MacCallum, R. C., Browne, M. W., & Sugawara, H. M. (1996). Power analysis and determination of sample size for covariance structure modeling. Psychological Methods, 1(2), 130.
Maercker, A., & Zoellner, T. (2004). The Janus face of self-perceived growth: Toward a two-component model of posttraumatic growth. Psychological Inquiry, 15(1), 41-48.
Marshall, T. C., Bejanyan, K., & Ferenczi, N. (2013). Attachment styles and personal growth following romantic breakups: The mediating roles of distress, rumination, and tendency to rebound. PloS one, 8(9), e75161.
McElheran, M., Briscoe-Smith, A., Khaylis, A., Westrup, D., Hayward, C., & Gore-Felton, C. (2012). A conceptual model of post-traumatic growth among children and adolescents in the aftermath of sexual abuse. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 25(1), 73-82
McCullough, M. E., Root, L. M., & Cohen, A. D. (2006). Writing about the benefits of an interpersonal transgression facilitates forgiveness. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(5), 887-897.
Michael, S. T., & Snyder, C. R. (2005). Getting unstuck: The roles of hope, finding meaning, and rumination in the adjustment to bereavement among college students. Death Studies, 29(5), 435-458.
Mikulincer, M., Horesh, N., Eilati, I., & Kotler, M. (1999). The association between adult attachment style and mental health in extreme life-endangering conditions. Personality and Individual Differences, 27(5), 831-842.
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2003). The attachment behavioral system in adulthood: Activation, psychodynamics, and interpersonal processes. Advances in Experitmental Social Psychology, 35(0), 53-152.
Mikulincer, M., Shaver, P. R., & Horesh, N. (2006). Attachment bases of emotion regulation and posttraumatic adjustment. In D. K. Snyder, J. A. Simpson, & J. N. Hughes (Eds.), Emotion regulation in families: Pathways to dysfunction and health (pp. 77-99). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Mol, S. S., Arntz, A., Metsemakers, J. F., Dinant, G. J., Vilters-van Montfort, P. A., & Knottnerus, J. A. (2005). Symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder after non-traumatic events: Evidence from an open population study. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 186(6), 494-499.
Murphy, M. C., & Archer, J. (1996). Stressors on the college campus: A comparison of 1985-1993. Journal of College Student Development, 37, 20-28.
Nelson Goff, B. S., Summers, K., Hartman, K., Billings, A., Chevalier, M., Hermes, A. H., Perkins, D., Walker, L., Wick., S., & Monk, J. K. (2015). Disclosure of war deployment experiences: A qualitative study of the relationship impact on military couples. Military Behavioral Health, 3(3), 190-198.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2000). The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/ depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109(3), 504-511.
Park, C. L., Cohen, L. H., & Murch, R. L. (1996). Assessment and prediction of stress‐related growth. Journal of Personality, 64(1), 71-105.
Prado, G., Feaster, D. J., Schwartz, S. J., Pratt, I. A., Smith, L., & Szapocznik, J. (2004). Religious involvement, coping, social support, and psychological distress in HIV-seropositive African American mothers. AIDS and Behavior, 8(3), 221-235.
Robinson, J. S., & Larson, C. (2010). Are traumatic events necessary to elicit symptoms of posttraumatic stress.. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 2(2), 71-76.
Russell, D. W., Kahn, J. H., Spoth, R., & Altmaier, E. M. (1998). Analyzing data from experimental studies: A latent variable structural equation modeling approach. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 45(1), 18.
Schaefer, C., Coyne, J. C., & Lazarus, R. S. (1981). The health-related functions of social support. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4(4), 381-406.
Scott, M. J., & Stradling, S. G. (1994). Post‐traumatic stress disorder without the trauma. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 33(1), 71-74.
Senol-Durak, E., & Ayvasik, H. B. (2010). Factors associated with posttraumatic growth among myocardial infarction patients: Perceived social support, perception of the event and coping. Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings, 17(2), 150-158.
Shapiro, F. (2001). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: Basic principles, protocols and procedures (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
Shaver, P. R., & Mikulincer, M. (2002). Attachment-related psychodynamics. Attachment & human development, 4(2), 133-161.
Sheikh, A. I. (2003). A Model of Posttraumatic Growth: Personality, Social Support, and Coping. Doctoral dissertation, The George Washington University
Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods, 7(4), 422-445.
Taku, K., Calhoun, L. G., Cann, A., & Tedeschi, R. G. (2008). The role of rumination in the coexistence of distress and posttraumatic growth among bereaved Japanese university students. Death Studies, 32(5), 428-444.
Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (1996). The posttraumatic growth inventory: Measuring the positive legacy of trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9(3), 455-471.
Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (2004). “Posttraumatic growth: Conceptual foundations and empirical evidence”. Psychological Inquiry, 15(1), 1-18.
Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (2006). Expert companions: Posttraumatic growth in clinical practice. In L. G. Calhoun & R. G. Tedeschi (Eds.), Handbook of posttraumatic growth: Research and practice (pp. 291-310). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Tedeschi, R. G., Shakespeare-Finch, J., Taku, K., & Calhoun, L. G. (2018). Posttraumatic growth: theory, research, and applications. New York, NY: Routledge.
Thoits, P. A. (1996). Managing the emotions of others. Symbolic Interaction, 19(2), 85-109.
Thornton, A. A., & Perez, M. A. (2006). Posttraumatic growth in prostate cancer survivors and their partners. Psycho-Oncology: Journal of the Psychological, Social and Behavioral Dimensions of Cancer, 15(4), 285-296.
Triplett, K. N., Tedeschi, R. G., Cann, A., Calhoun, L. G., & Reeve, C. L. (2012). Posttraumatic growth, meaning in life, and life satisfaction in response to trauma. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 4(4), 400-410.
Ullman, S. E., Relyea, M., Peter-Hagene, L., & Vasquez, A. L. (2013). Trauma histories, substance use coping, PTSD, and problem substance use among sexual assault victims. Addictive Behaviors, 38(6), 2219-2223.
Weiss, D. S., & Marmar, C. R. (1997). The impact of event scale-revised. Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD, 2, 168-189.
Weiss, T. (2002). Posttraumatic growth in women with breast cancer and their husbands: An intersubjective validation study. Journal of Psychosocial Oncology, 20(2), 65-80.
Weiss, T. (2004). Correlates of posttraumatic growth in husbands of breast cancer survivors. Psycho-‐Oncology, 13(4), 260-268.
Well A., & Matthews, G. (1994). Attention and emotion: A Clinical perspective. New York: Psychology Press.
Willard, V. W., Long, A., & Phipps, S. (2016). Life stress versus traumatic stress: The impact of life events on psychological functioning in children with and without serious illness. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 8(1), 63-71.
Yu, W., He, L., Xu, W., Wang, J., & Prigerson, H. G. (2016). How do attachment dimensions affect bereavement adjustment? A mediation model of continuing bonds. Psychiatry Research, 238(0), 93-99.
Zhou, X., Wu, X., An, Y., & Chen, J. (2014). The roles of rumination and social support in the associations between core belief challenge and post-traumatic growth among adolescent survivors after the Wenchuan earthquake. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 46(10), 1509-1520.
Zimbardo, P. G., & Weber, A. L.(1997). Psychology (2nd ed.). New York: Longman.
Zimet, G. D., Dahlem, N. W., Zimet, S. G., & Farley, G. K. (1988). The multidimensional scale of perceived social support. Journal of Personality Assessment, 52(1), 30-41.
