본 연구는 다문화 상담의 관점에서 상담자의 사회계층 편향성 수준과 내담자의 사회계층 배경에 따라 상담자의 내담자에 대한 평가와 역전이 반응에 차이가 있는지를 살펴보았다. 이를 위해 상담자 382명에게 사회계층을 두 가지로 조작한 가상의 내담자의 접수면접지를 제시하여 내담자 평가와 역전이 반응을 측정하였다. 그리고 상담자의 사회계층 편향성 수준에 따라 집단을 구분하여 이원분산분석과 다변량분산분석을 실시하였다. 분석 결과, 첫째 상담자의 사회계층 편향성에 따라 내담자 평가와 역전이 반응의 차이가 유의미하였다. 사회계층 편향성이 높은 상담자 집단은 사회계층 편향성이 낮은 상담자 집단에 비해 내담자를 덜 호의적으로 평가하였으며, 내담자에게 지배 및 적대 역전이 감정을 더 많이 경험하였다. 둘째, 내담자의 사회계층 배경에 따라 상담자의 내담자 평가는 의미 있는 차이가 나타나지 않았다. 셋째, 내담자 평가에 있어서 상담자의 사회계층 편향성과 내담자의 사회계층 배경 사이의 상호작용 효과는 유의하지 않았지만, ‘지배’ 역전이 반응에 있어서는 상호작용 효과가 확인되었다. 사회계층 편향성이 높은 상담자는 사회계층 편향성이 낮은 상담자에 비해서 중산층 내담자가 하류층 내담자보다 지배적이라고 느끼는 것이 밝혀졌다. 마지막으로 이러한 연구결과를 바탕으로 본 연구의 제한점 및 의의에 대해 논의하였다.
This study examined whether there were differences in counselors’ evaluations of clients and countertransference responses based on counselors’ social class biases and clients’ social class backgrounds. Two intake forms for mock clients with distinct backgrounds were presented to 382 counselors, whose evaluations of the mock clients and countertransference responses were analyzed. The results indicated that counselors’ evaluations and countertransference responses differed significantly based on the level of bias. Counselors with high bias evaluated clients less favorably and experienced more ‘dominant’ and ‘hostile’ countertransference responses. However, counselors’ evaluations did not differ significantly based on client background. There was no significant interaction effect between counselors’ bias and clients’ background. An interaction effect was found for the ‘dominance’ countertransference response. Counselors with high levels of bias appeared to assume that middle-class clients were more dominant than lower class clients, as compared to counselors with low levels of bias. Limitations and implications are discussed.
강민철 (2014). 집단상담에서의 대인관계 지각이 치료적 요인의 인식에 미치는 영향. 서울대학교 대학원 박사학위논문.
강민철, 김수임 (2016). 대인관계 반향메시지를 통한 집단원간 전이 분석: 사회관계모형(SRM)을 기반으로. 한국상담학회, 17(1), 169-186.
김창대, 김수임, 강민철, 김영근 (2012). 대인관계 반향메시지 원형모형 검사(IMI-C)의 타당화. 상담학연구, 13(4), 1881-1901.
김춘희, 손은령 (2014). 국내 다문화상담연구 현황. 상담학연구, 15(6), 2209-2223.
민경환 (1989). 권위주의 성격과 사회적 편견: 대학생 집단을 중심으로. 한국심리학회지: 사회 및 성격, 4(2), 146-168.
박미정 (2002). 내담자의 자기공개와 성별이 상담자의 내담자 평가에 미치는 영향. 이화여자대학교 대학원 석사학위논문.
박정은 (2013). 내담자에 대한 상담자의 불편감이 상담자 정보처리 과정에 미치는 영향: 동성애 내담자를 중심으로. 서울대학교 대학원 석사학위논문.
변상우 (2018a). 상담자의 사회계층 편향성에 대한 탐색적 연구. 가톨릭대학교 대학원 박사학위논문.
변상우 (2018b). 사회계층에 대한 재조명. 한국심리학회지: 문화 및 사회문제, 24(1), 101- 130.
서영석, 이정림, 강재희, 차주환 (2007). 상담자의 동성애혐오반응에 관한 연구. 한국심리학회지: 상담 및 심리치료, 19(2), 213-237.
손은정, 이혜성 (2002). 상담자 발달 수준별 사례 개념화의 차이: 개념도를 통한 인지구조를 중심으로. 한국심리학회: 상담 및 심리치료, 14(4), 829-843.
송관재, 이훈구, 박수애, 홍영오 (1999). 권위주의 성격과 장애인에 대한 태도와의 관계에 관한 연구. 한국심리학회 연차 학술발표 논문집, 219-221.
우사라, 유성경 (2017). 상담자의 동성애에 대한 부정적 태도와 동성애자 상담 유능감에 따른 임상적 판단 및 반응. 한국심리학회지: 상담 및 심리치료, 29(2), 311-334.
이명우, 박정민, 이문희, 임영선 (2005). 사례개념화 교육을 위한 상담전문가의 경험적 지식 탐색 연구. 한국심리학회지: 상담 및 심리치료, 17(2), 277-296.
이주일 (1988). 이분척도와 Likert형 7점 척도의 신뢰도, 타당도, 반응 양식의 비교: 자기검색척도와 자기의식척도를 대상으로. 서울대학교 대학원 석사학위논문.
하정희 (2015). 권위주의 성격 및 무조건적 자기수용과 다문화태도와의 관계. 다문화교육연구, 8(3), 133-151.
한국상담심리학회 윤리강령 (2018). http://www. krcpa.or.kr/sub01_5.asp?menu Category=1에서 검색.
최은영 (2002). 상담자 성고정관념이 내담자에 대한 평가에 미치는 영향. 이화여자대학교 대학원 석사학위논문.
Adler, N. E., Epel, E. S., Castellazzo, G., & Ickovics, J. R. (2000). Relationship of subjective and objective social status with psychological functioning: Preliminary data in healthy White women. Health Psychology, 19, 586-592.
Altemeyer, B. (1996). The authoritarian specter. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
American Psychological Association [APA] (2003). Guidelines on multicultural education, training, research, practice, and organizational change for psychologists. American Psychologist, 58(5), 377-402.
Arredondo, P., Toporek, R., Brown, S. P., Jones, J., Locke, D. C., Sanchez, J., & Stadler, H. (1996). Operationalization of the multicultural counseling competencies. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 24(1), 42-78.
Balmforth, J. (2009). ‘The weight of class’: Clients’ experiences of how perceived differences in social class between counselor and client affect the therapeutic relationship. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 37, 375-386.
Bamgbose, O., Edwards, D, & Johnson, S. (1980). The effects of race and social class on clinical judgment. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 36(2), 605-609.
Bäckström, M., & Björklund, F. (2007). Structural modeling of generalized prejudice: The role of social dominance, authoritarianism, and empathy. Journal of Individual Differences, 28(1), 10-17.
Blustein, D. L. (2006). The psychology of working: A new perspective for career development, counseling, and public policy. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Choudhuri, D. D., Santiago-Rivera, A. L., & Garrett, M. T. (2012). Counseling & diversity. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. 2nd edn.
Colbow, A. J., Cannella, E., Vispoel, W., Morris, C. A., Cederberg, C., Conrad, M., ... & Liu, W. M. (2016). Development of the Classism Attitudinal Profile (CAP). Journal of Counseling Psychology, 63(5), 571.
Collins, P. H. (1990). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. Boston: Unwin Hyman.
Cook, J. M. (2017). Social class bias: A phenomenological study. Journal of Counselor Preparation and Supervision, 9(1). Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.7729/91.1167
Cook, J. M., & Lawson, G. (2016). Counselors' social class and socioeconomic status understanding and awareness. Journal of Counseling & Development, 94(4), 442-453.
Cozzarelli, C., Wilkinson, A. V., & Tagler, M. J. (2001). Attitudes toward the poor and attributions for poverty. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 207-227.
Crowne, D. P., & Marlowe, D. (1960). A new scale of social desirability independent of psychopathology. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 24(4), 349.
D’Andrea, M., & Daniels, J. (2001). Respectful counseling: An integrative multidimensional model for counselors. In D. B. Pope-Davis & H. L. K. Coleman (Eds.), The intersection of race, class, and gender in multicultural counseling (pp. 49-70). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Diemer, M. A., & Ali, S. B. (2009). Integrating social class into vocational psychology: Theory and practice implications. Journal of Career Assessment, 17(3), 247-265.
Dougall, J. L., & Schwartz, R. C. (2011). The influence of client socioeconomic status on psychotherapists' attributional biases and countertransference reactions. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 65(3), 249-265.
Dovidio, J. F., Brigham, J. C., Johnson, B. T., & Gaertner, S. L. (1996). Stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination: Another look. In C. N. McCrae, C. Stangor, & M. Hewstone (Eds.), Stereotypes and stereotyping (pp. 276-319). New York: Guilford.
Dru, V. (2007). Authoritarianism, social dominance orientation and prejudice: Effects of various self-categorization conditions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43(6), 877-883.
Evans, G. W. (2004). The environment of childhood poverty. American Psychologist, 59(2), 77-92.
Fiske, S. T. (1998). Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (Vol. 2) (pp. 357-411). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Franklin, D. (1986). Does client social class affect clinical judgment? Social Casework: The Journal of Contemporary Social Work, 67(7), 424-432.
Garb, H. N. (1997). Race bias, social class bias, and gender bias in clinical judgment. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 4(2), 99-120.
Gelso, C. J., & Hayes, J. A. (1998). The psychotherapy relationship: Theory, research, and practice. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Graff, H., Kenig, L., & Radoff, G. (1971). Prejudice of upper class therapists against lower class patients. Psychiatric Quarterly, 45(4), 475-489.
Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6), 1464-1480.
Heitler, J. B. (1973). Preparation of lower-class patients for expressive group psychotherapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 41(2), 251.
Heppner, P. P., Wampold, B. E., Owen, J., Thompson, M. N., & Wang, K. T. (2015). Analogue research: Maximizing experimental control. In K. T. Wang (Ed.), Research design in counseling (4th ed.) (pp. 314-330) Boston: Cengage Learning.
Howell, J. M., & Highlen, P. S. (1981). Effects of client affective self-disclosure and counselor experience on counselor verbal behavior and perceptions. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 28(5), 386.
Hutchison, B. (2011). The influence of perceived poverty and academic achievement on school counselor conceptualization. Equity & Excellence in Education, 44(2), 203-220.
Javier, R. A., & Herron, W. B. (2002). Psychoanalysis and the disenfranchised: Countertransference issues. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 19(1), 149-166.
Javier, R. A., Herron, W. B., & Yanos, P. T. (1995). Urban poverty, ethnicity, and personality development. Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless, 4(3), 219-235.
Jensen, B. (1997, June). Becoming versus Belonging: Psychology, Speech, and Social Class. Paper presented at the Working Class Studies Association Conference, Youngstown, OH.
Kearney, A. (1996). Counselling, class and politics: Undeclared influences in therapy. Manchester: PCCS Books.
Kiesler, D. J. (1987). Research manual for the Impact Message Inventory. CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Kiesler, D. J. (2001). Counselor countertransference: In search of common themes and empirical referents. Journal of Clinical Psychology/In Session: Psychotherapy in Practice, 57(8), 1053-1063.
Lane, P. M. (1986). Transference and countertransference: Definitions of terms. In A. C. Meyers (Ed.), Between analyst and patient, new dimensions in countertransference and transference (pp. 237-256). NJ: The Analytic Press.
Lareau, A. (2011). Unequal childhoods: Class, race, and family life (2nd ed). Berkeley and Los Angeles: Univ of California Press.
Lee, V., & Burkam, D. (2002). Inequality at the starting gate: Social background differences in achievement as children begin school. Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute.
Liu, W. M. (2011). Social class and the classism in the helping professions. Washington, DC: Sage.
Liu, W. M., Soleck, G., Hopps, J., Dunston, K., & Pickett, T. (2004). A new framework to understand social class in counseling: The social class worldview model and modern classism theory. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 32(2), 95-122.
Lopez, S. R. (1989). Patient variable biases in clinical judgment: Conceptual overview and methodological considerations. Psychological Bulletin, 106(2), 184-203.
Lott, B. (2002). Cognitive and behavioral distancing from the poor. American Psychologist, 57(2), 100-110.
Lucal, B. (1994). Class Stratification in Introductory Textbooks: Relational or Distributional Models?. Teaching Sociology, 22(2), 139-150.
Lund, C., Breen, A., Flisher, A. J., Kakuma, R., Corrigall, J., Joska, J. A., Swartz, L. & Patel, V. (2010). Poverty and common mental disorders in low and middle income countries: A systematic review. Social Science & Medicine, 71(3), 517-528.
Luthar, S. S. (2003). The culture of affluence: Psychological costs of material wealth. Child Development, 74(6), 1581-1593.
Mackie, D. M., & Smith, E. R. (1998). Intergroup relations: Insights from a theoretically integrative approach. Psychological Review, 105, 499-529.
Myers, H. C. (1986). Between analyst and patient, new dimensions in countertransference and transference. NJ: The Analytic Press.
Perez-Foster, R. (1999). An intersubjective approach to cross-cultural clinical work. Smith College Studies in Social Work, 69, 269-302.
Pope-Davis, D. B., & Coleman, H. L. (2001). The intersection of race, class, and gender in multicultural counseling. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Pope-Davis, D. B., Liu, W. M., Toporek, R. L., & Brittan-Powell, C. S. (2001). What’s missing from multicultural competency research: Review, introspection, and recommendations. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 7(2), 121-138.
Raizada, R. S., & Kishiyama, M. M. (2010). Effects of socioeconomic status on brain development, and how cognitive neuroscience may contribute to leveling the playing field. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 4, 3.
Reardon, S. F. (2011). The widening academic-achievement gap between the rich and the poor: New evidence and possible explanations. In G. J. Duncan & R. M. Murnane (Eds.), Social inequalities and educational disadvantage. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.
Rice, A. J., Colbow, A. J., Gibbons, S., Cederberg, C., Sahker, E., Liu, W. M., & Wurster, K. (2016). The social class worldviews of firstgeneration college students. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 30(4), 415-440.
Ridley, C. R. (2005). Overcoming unintentional racism in counseling and therapy: A practitioner’s guide to intentional intervention (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Rogers, C. R. (1980). A Way of being. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Rosenberger, E., & Hayes, J. (2002). Therapist as subject: A review of the empirical countertransference literature. Journal of Counseling & Development, 80(3), 264-270.
Schwartz, R. C., Smith, S. D., & Chopko, B. (2007). Psychotherapists' countertransference reactions toward clients with antisocial personality disorder and schizophrenia: An empirical test of theory. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 61(4), 375.
Schwartz, R. C., & Wendling, H. M. (2003). Countertransference reactions toward specific client populations: A review of empirical literature. Psychological Reports, 92, 651-654.
Settin, J. M., & Bramel, D. (1981). Interaction of client class and gender in biasing clinical judgment. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 51(3), 510-520.
Sherif, M., Harvey, O. J., White, B. J., Hood, W. R., & Sherif, C. W. (1961). Intergroup conflict and cooperation: The robbers cave experiment. Norman, OK: University Book Exchange.
Smith, L. (2005). Psychotherapy, classism, and the poor: Conspicuous by their absence. American Psychologist, 60(7), 687-696.
Smith, L., Allen, A., & Bowen, R. (2010). Expecting the worst: Exploring the associations between poverty and misbehavior. Journal of Poverty, 14(1), 33-54.
Smith, L., Li, V., Dykema, S., Hamlet, D., & Shellman, A. (2013). “Honoring somebody that society doesn't honor”: Therapists working in the context of poverty. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 69(2), 138-151.
Smith, L., Mao, S., Perkins, S., & Ampuero, M. (2011). The relationship of clients’ social class to early therapeutic impressions. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 24(1), 15-27.
Smith, T. W. (1987). That which we call welfare by any other name would smell sweeter an analysis of the impact of question wording on response patterns. Public Opinion Quarterly, 51(1), 75-83.
Snibbe, A. C., & Markus, H. R. (2005). You can't always get what you want: Educational attainment, agency, and choice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(4), 703-720.
Strawbridge, S., & Woolfe, R. (1996). Counselling psychology: A sociological perspective. In R. Woolfe & W. Dryden (Eds.), A handbook of counselling psychology (pp. 605-629). London: Sage.
Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (1977). Barriers to effective cross-cultural counseling. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 24(5), 420-429.
Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (2003). Counseling the culturally diverse: Theory and practice (4th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Thompson, M., Diestelmann, J., Cole, O., Keller, A., & Minami, T. (2014). Influence of social class perceptions on attributions among mental health practitioners. Psychotherapy Research, 24(6), 640-650.
Thompson, M. N., Cole, O. D., & Nitzarim, R. S. (2012). Recognizing social class in the psychotherapy relationship: A grounded theory exploration of low-income clients. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59(2), 208-221.
Thompson, M. N., Nitzarim, R. S., Cole, O. D., Frost, N. D., Stege, A. R., & Vue, P. T. (2015). Clinical experiences with clients who are low-income: Mental health practitioners’ perspectives. Qualitative Health Research, 25(12), 1675-1688.
Tryon, G. S. (1999). Counseling dropout relative to client attractiveness, disturbance, and expected number of sessions. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 12(3), 285-291.
Umbenhauer, S. L., & DeWitte, L. L. (1978). Patient race and social class: Attitudes and decisions among three groups of mental health professionals. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 19(6), 509-515.
Wilson, J. P., Lindy, J. D., & Raphael, B. (1994). Empathic Strain and Therapist Defense: Type I and II CTRs. In J. P. Wilson & J. D. Lindy (Eds.), Countertransference in the Treatment of PTSD (pp. 31-61). NY: Guilford.
Woo, K. H., Ghorayeb, S. H., Lee, C. K., Sangha, H., & Richter, S. (2004). Effect of patient socioeconomic status on perceptions of first- and second-year medical students. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 170(13), 1915-1919.
Wrenn, C. G. (1962). The culturally encapsulated counselor. Harvard Educational Review, 32, 444-449.
Yeung, W. J., & Conley, D. (2008). The Black-White achievement gap and family wealth. Child Development, 79, 303-324.
Zhang, Q., & Wang, Y. (2004). Socioeconomic inequality of obesity in the United States: Do gender, age, and ethnicity matter? Social Science & Medicine, 58, 1171-1180.
