ISSN : 1229-067X
The present study investigated cognitive vulnerability factors that persist after recovery from the depressive episode. 33 currently depressed, 26 remitted depressed, 31 matched never depressed participants completed the self-referent encoding and incidental recall/recognition task after participating in a negative mood-induction procedure. They also completed the questionnaire about the use of rumination. We found that currently depressed participants exhibited more recall for negative words, less recall for positive words, greater rumination than never depressed participants. Meanwhile, remitted depressed participants exhibited the less recall for positive words than never depressed participants. These results suggest that biased recall of positive material is evident even after individuals have remitted from a depressive episode. Implications of these findings are discussed and directions for future research are advanced.
김영환, 진유경, 조용래, 권정혜, 홍상황, 박은영 (2002). 한국형 대인관계 문제검사의 타당화: KIIP-C와 KIIP-PD의 신뢰도와 타당도. 한국심리학회지: 임상, 21, 391-411.
김은정 (1993). 우울 증상 지속에 영향을 주는 인지 및 행동 변인들. 연세대학교 박사학위 논문.
김정택 (1978). 특성불안과 사회성과의 관계: Spielberger의 STAI를 중심으로. 고려대학교 석사학위 논문.
권석만 (1994). 한국판 역기능적 태도척도의 신뢰도, 타당도 및 요인구조. 심리과학, 3, 100-111.
배금예, 김영환 (1997). 불안과 우울이 암묵기억과 외현기억에 미치는 영향. 한국심리학회지: 임상, 16, 119-132.
이영자 (1996). 스트레스, 사회적 지지, 자아존중감과 우울 및 불안과의 관계. 서울여자대학교 박사학위 논문.
연세대학교 언어정보 개발 연구원 (1998). 현대 한국어의 어휘 빈도. 연세대학교 언어정보 개발연구원 내부보고서.
한오수, 홍진표 (2000). DSM-Ⅳ의 제 1축 장애의 구조화된 임상적 면담: SCID-1. 서울: 하나의학사.
한창수 (2006). 한국 우울증의 진료현황 조사. 한국 우울증 진료의 현황과 발전방향. 한국형 우울증 진료지침 개발위원회 보고서.
American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders(4th ed., text rev.). Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association.
Barnett, P. A., & Gotlib, I. H. (1988). Psychosocial functioning in depression: Distinguishing among antecedents, concomitants, and consequences. Psychological Bulletin, 104, 97-126.
Beck, A. T. (1967). Depression: Clinical, experimental, and theoretical aspects. New York: Harper & Row.
Beck, A. T. (1976). Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders. New York: New American Library.
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). “Manual for the Beck Depression Inventory-II”. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation
Beck A. T., Ward, C., & Mendelson, M. (1961). “Beck Depression Inventory (BDI)”. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4, 561-571.
Bellew, M., & Hill, A. B. (1990). Negative recall bias as a predictor of susceptibility to induced depressive mood. Personality and Individual Differences, 11, 471-480.
Bower, G. H. (1981). Mood and Memory. American Psychologist, 36, 129-148.
Blackburn, I. M., & Smyth, P. (1985). A test of cognitive vulnerability in individuals prone to depression. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 24, 61-62.
Bradley, B. P., & Mathews, A. (1988). Memory bias in recovered clinical depressives. Cognition and Emotion, 2, 235-245.
Bradley, B. P., & Mogg, K. (1994). Mood and personality in recall of positive and negative information. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32, 137-141.
Breslow, R, J., Kocsis, J., & Belkin, B. (1981). Contribution of the depressive perspective to memory function in depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 138, 227-230.
Chang, E. C., Tsai, W, & Sanna, L. J. (2010). Examining the relations between rumination and adjustment: Do ethnic differences exist between asian and european americans? Asian American Journal of Psychology, 1, 46-56.
Deijen, J. B., Orlebeker, J. F., & Rijsdijk, F. V. (1993). Effect of depression on psychomotor skills, eye movements and recognition memory. Journal of Affective disorders, 29, 33- 40.
Denny, E. B., & Hunt, R. R. (1992). Affective valence and memory in depression: Dissociation of recall and fragment completion. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 575-580.
Dent, J., & Teasdale, J. D. (1988). Negative cognition and the persistence of depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 29-34.
Dobson, K., & Shaw, B. (1987). Specificity and stability of self-referent encoding in clinical depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 96, 34-40.
Dohr, K. B., Rush, A. J., & Bernstein, I. H. (1989). Cognitive biases in depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 98, 263-267.
Dozois, D. J. A., & Dobson, K. S. (2001). Information processing and cognitive organization in unipolar depression: specificity and comorbidity issues. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 236-246.
Dunbar, G. C., & Lishman, W. A. (1984). Depression, recognition-memory and hedonic tone: A signal detection analysis. British Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 376-382.
Eaves, G., & Rush, A. J. (1984). Cognitive patterns in symptomatic and remitted unipolar major depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 93, 31-40.
Fritzsche, A., Dahme, B., Gotlib, I. H., Joormann, J., Magnussen, H., Watz, H., et al. (2010). Specificity of cognitive biases in patients with current depression and remitted depression and in patients with asthma. Psychological Medicine, 40, 815-826.
Gotlib, I. H., & Cane, D. B. (1987). Construct accessibility and clinical depression: A longitudinal investigation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 96, 199-204.
Gotlib, I. H., & McCann, C. D. (1984). Construct accessibility and depression: An examination of cognitive and affective factors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 427-439.
Craig, F. I. M., & Tulving, E. (1975). Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104, 268-294.
Hedlund, S., Rude, S. S. (1995). Evidence of latent depressive schemas in formerly depressed individuals. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 517-525.
Heine, S. J., Kitayama, S., & Hamamura, T. (2007). Inclusion of additional studies yields different conclusions: Comment on Sedikides, Gaertner, & Vevea (2005), Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 10, 49-58.
Heine, S. J., Kitayama, S., Lehman, D. R., Takata, T., Ide, E., Lueng, C., & Matsumoto, H. (2001). Divergent consequences of sucess and failure in Japan and North America: An investigation of self-improving motivations and malleable selves. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 599-615.
Hollon, S. D., Kendall, P. C., & Lumry, A. (1984). Specificity of depressotypic cognition in clinical depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 52-59.
Hollon, S. D., Kriss, M. (1984). Cognitive factors in clinical research and practice. Clinical Psychology Review, 4, 35-76.
Hudson, J. A., & Fivush, R. (1987). As time goes by: Sixth graders remember a kindergarten experience. Emory Cognition Project.
Huffziger, S., Reinhard, I., & Kuehner, C. (2009). A longitudinal study of rumination and distraction in formerly depressed inpatients and community controls. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 746-756.
Ingram, R. E., Bernet, C. Z., & McLaughlin, S. C. (1994). Attentional allocation processes in individuals at risk for depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 18, 317-332.
Ingram, R. E., Miranda, J., & Segal, Z. V. (1998). Cognitive vulnerability to depression. New York: Guilford press.
Ingram, R. E., Smith, T. W., & Brehm, S. S. (1983). Depression and information processing: Self-schemata and the encoding of self-referent information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 412-420.
Jhonson, S. L., Joormann, J., & Gotlib, I. H. (2007). Does processing of emotional stimuli predict symptomatic improvement and diagnostic recovery from major depression? Emotion, 7, 201-206.
Joormann, J., Dkane, M., & Gotlib, I. H. (2006). Adaptive and maladaptive components of rumination? Diagnostic specificity and relation to depressive biases. Behavior Therapy, 37, 269-280.
Joormann, J., Talbot, L., Gotlib, I. H. (2007). Biased processing of emotional information in girls at risk for depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 135-143.
Keller, M. B., Lavori, P. W., Mueller, T. I., Endicott, J., Coryell, W., Hirschfeld, R. M., et al. (1992). Time to recovery, chronicity, and level of psychopathology in major depression. A 5-year prospective follow-up of 431 subject. Archives of General Psychiatry, 49, 809-816.
Klein, D., Harding, K., Taylor, E. B., & Dickstein, S. (1988). Dependency and self- criticism in depression: Evaluation in a clinical population. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 399-404.
Lim, S. L., & Kim, J. H. (2005). Cognitive processing of emotional information in depression, panic and somatoform disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 50-61.
Lyubomirsky, S., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1993). Self-perpetuating properties of dysphoric rumination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 339-349.
Lyubomirsky, S., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1995). Effects of self-focused rumination on negative thinking and interpersonal problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 176-190.
Macmillian, N. A., & Creelman, C. D. (1991). Detection theory: A user's guide. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Markus, H. R. & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review. 98. 224-253.
Martin, M. (1990). On the induction of mood. Clinical, Psychology review, 10, 669-697.
Morrow, J., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1990). Effects of responses to depression on the remediation of depressive affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 519-527.
Miranda, J., & Persons, J. B., & Byers, C. (1990). Endorsement of dysfunctional beliefs depends on current mood state. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 99, 237-241.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Parker, L. E., & Larson, J. (1994). Ruminative coping with depressed mood Following Loss. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 92-104.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Morrow, J. (1991). A Prospective study of depression and posttraumatic stress symptoms after a natural disaster: The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 115-121.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Larson, J., & Grayson, C. (1999). Explaining the gender difference in depressive symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1061-1072.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Morrow, J., & Fredrickson, B. L. (1993). Response styles and the duration of episodes of depressed mood. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 20-28.
Keller, M. B., Lavori, P. W., Mueller, T. I., Endicott, J., Coryell, W., Hirschfeld, R. M., et al. (1992). Time to recovery, chronicity, and level of psychopathology in major depression: A 5-year prospective follow-up of 431 subject. Archives of General Psychiatry, 49, 809-816.
Klein, D., Harding, K., Taylor, E. B., & Dickstein, S. (1988). Dependency and self- criticism in depression: Evaluation in a clinical population. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 399-404.
Ramel, W., Goldin, P. R., Eyler, L. T., Brown, G. G., Gotlib, I. H., & McQuaid, J. R. (2007). Amygdala reactivity and mood-congruent memory in individuals at risk for depressive relapse. Biological Psychiatry, 61, 231-239.
Ruiz Caballero, J. A., & Gonzalez, P. (1994). Implicit and explicit memory bias in depressed and non depressed subjects. Cognition and Emotion, 8, 555-569.
Sakamoto, S., Kambara, M., & Tanno, Y. (2001). Response styles and cognitive and affective symptoms of depression. Personality and Individual differences, 31, 1053-1065.
Segal, Z. V., & Ingram, R. E. (1994). Mood priming and construct activation in tests of cognitive vulnerability to unipolar depression. Clinical Psychology Review, 14, 663-695.
Segal, Z. V., Gemar, M., & Williams, S. (1999). Differential cognitive response to a mood challenge following successful cognitive therapy or pharmacotherapy for unipolar depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108, 3–10.
Segal, Z. V., Kennedy, S., Gemar M., Hood, K., Pedersen, R., & Buis, T. (2006). Cognitive reactivity to sad mood provocation and the prediction of depressive relapse. Archives of General Psychiatry. 63, 749-755.
Silverman, J. S., Silverman, J. A., & Eardley, D. A. (1984). Do maladaptive attitude cause depression? Archives of General Psychiatry, 41, 28-30.
Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. T., & Lushene, R. E. (1970). Manual for the state-trait anxiety inventory. Pal. Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologist Press.
Scher, C. D., Ingram, R. E., & Segal, Z. V. (2005). Cognitive reactivity and vulnerability: empirical evaluation of construct activation and cognitive diatheses in unipolar depression. Clinical Psychology Review, 25, 487-510.
Starr, L. R., & Davila, J. (2008). Excessive reassurance seeking, depression, and interpersonal rejection: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 762-775.
Symons, C, S., & Johnson, B, T. (1997). The self-reference effect in memory: A meta analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 371-394.
Teasdale, J. D., & Dent, J. (1987). Cognitive vulnerability to depression: An investigation of two hypothesis. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 26, 113-126.
Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 247-259.
Trapnell, P. D., & Campbell, J. D. (1999). Private self-consciousness and the five-factor model of personality: Distinguishing rumination from reflection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 284-304.
Watkins, E., & Teasdale, J. D. (2001). Rumination and overgeneral memory in depression: effects of self-focus and analytic thinking. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 110, 353-357.
Watkins, E., & Teasdale, J. D. (2004). Adaptive and maladaptive self-focus in depression. Journal of Affective disorders, 82, 1-8.
Watkins, E., & Moulds, M. (2005). Positive beliefs about rumination in depression-a replication and extension. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 73-82.
Weissman, A. N., & Beck, A. T. (1978). Developmental validation of the Dysfunctional attitude scale. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association of Advancement of Behavior Therapy, Chicago.
Williams, J. M., Watts, F. N., MacLeod, C., Mathews, A. (1988). Cognitive psychology and emotional disorder, Chichester, England: Wiley.
Zuroff, D. C., Colussy, S. A., & Wielgus, M. S. (1983). Selective memory and depression: A cautionary note concerning response bias. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 7, 223-232.