바로가기메뉴

본문 바로가기 주메뉴 바로가기

Korean Journal of Psychology: General

Why Implicit and Explicit Measures for Aggression Are Not Related: Qualitative Review

Korean Journal of Psychology: General / Korean Journal of Psychology: General, (P)1229-067X; (E)2734-1127
2014, v.33 no.2, pp.417-440

Abstract

Although previous studies have investigated the dissociation approach of different types of motives, exploring the reasons behind the dissociation between implicit and explicit motives for aggression are still lacking. The present study reviews different (social) cognitions that influence implicit (Conditional Reasoning Test for Aggression, CRT-A) and explicit measures of aggression (Aggression Questionnaire, AQ). The CRT-A assesses individuals’ aggressive tendencies through an inductive reasoning process that uses an individual’s implicit motives, selective attention, and confirming biases, whereas, the self-reported measures of aggression investigate aggressiveness through a decision making process based on implicit comparison and self-perception. Furthermore, this review suggests possible antecedents of implicit and explicit aggression, such as low versus unstable self-esteem, and social exclusion versus social learning. The implications and future direction of the implicit and explicit measures of personality are also discussed.

keywords
조건추론검사-공격성, 암묵적 측정치, 자기보고형 공격성 검사, 분리모델, aggression, Conditional Reasoning Test for Aggression (CRT-A), implicit, explicit, dissociation approach

Reference

1.

Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 575-582.

2.

Batram, D. (2007). Increasing validity with forced-choice criterion measurement formats. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 15, 263-272.

3.

Baumeister, R. F., Smart, L., & Boden, J. M. (1996). Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem. Psychological Review, 103, 5-33.

4.

Benjamin, L. T. Jr. (2008). Defining aggression. In L. T. Jr. Benjamin (Ed), Favorite activities of the teaching of psychology (pp. 151-155). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

5.

Bing, M. N., Stewart, S. M., Davison, H. K., Green, P. D., McIntyre, M. D. & James, L. R. (2007). An integrative typology of personality assessment for aggression:Implications for predicting counterproductive workplace behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 722-722.

6.

Bornstein, R. F. (2002). A process dissociation approach to objective-projective test score interrelationships. Journal of Personality Assessment, 78, 47-68.

7.

Bradshaw, C. P., & Garbarino, J. (2004). Social cognition as a mediator of the influence of family and community violence: Implications for intervention. In J. Devine, J. Gilligan, K. Miczek, R. Shaikh, & D. Pfaff (Eds.), Scientific approaches to youth violence prevention (Vol. 1036, pp. 85-105). New York: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

8.

Buckley, K., Winkel, R., & Leary, M. (2004). Reactions to acceptance and rejection: Effects of level and sequence of relational evaluation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 14-28.

9.

Burks, V. S., Laird, R. D., Dodge, K. A., Pettit, G. S., & Bates, J. E. (1999). Knowledge structures, social information processing, and children’s aggressive behavior. Social Development, 8, 220-236.

10.

Burroughs, S. M. (2001). The role of dispositional aggressiveness and organizational injustice on deviant workplace behavior Unpublished manuscript, University of Tennessee, Knoxville.

11.

Buss, A. H. & Perry, M. (1992). The Aggression Questionnaire. Journal of personality and Social Psychology, 63, 452-459.

12.

Cho, S. -H. (2010). Biography.com. Retrieved 08:33, Jul 26 2010 from http://www. biography.com/articles/Seung-Hui-Cho-235991

13.

Clifton, A. Turkheimer, E., & Oltmanns, T. F. (2004). Contrasting perspectives on personality problems: Descriptions from the self and others. Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 1499-1514.

14.

Comstock, G. (2008). A sociological perspective on television violence and aggression. American Behavioral Scientist, 51, 1184-1211.

15.

Costa, P. T. & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory and NEO Five- Factor Inventory professional manual. Odessa, FL:Psychological Assessment Resources.

16.

Crawshaw, L. (2009). Workplace bullying? Mobbing? Harassment? Distraction by a thousand definitions. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 61, 263-267.

17.

Crede, M., Bashshur, M. & Niehorster, S. (2010). Reference group effects in the measurement of personality and attitudes. Journal of Personality Assessment, 92, 390-399.

18.

DeWall, C. N., Twenge, J. M., Gitter, S. A. & Baumeister, R. F. (2009). It’s the thought that counts: The role of hostile cognition in shaping aggressive responses to social exclusion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 45-59.

19.

Dodge, K. A. (1986). A social information processing model of social competence in children. In M. Perlmutter (Ed.), Minnesota symposium on child psychology (Vol. 18, pp. 77-125). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

20.

Dodge, K. A. & Frame, C. L. (1982). Social cognitive biases and deficits in aggressive boys. Child Development, 53, 620-635.

21.

Drabman, R. S. & Thomas, M. H. (1974). Does media violence increase children’s toleration of real-life aggression? Developmental Psychology, 10, 418-421.

22.

Duncan, P. & Hobson, G. N. (1977). Toward a definition of aggression. The Psychological Record, 27, 545-555.

23.

Dunford, F. W., Huizinga, D., & Elliot, D. S. (1990). The role of arrest in domestic assault:The Omaha police experiment. Criminology, 28, 183-206.

24.

Eckhardt, C. I. & Cohen, D. J. (1997). Attention to anger-relevant and irrelevant stimuli following naturalistic insult. Personality and Individual Differences, 23, 619-629.

25.

Farah, A. & Atoum, A. (2002). Personality traits as self-evaluated and as judged by others. Social behavior and personality, 30, 149-156.

26.

Ferguson, C. J. (2009). Media violence effects:Confirmed truth or just another X-file? Journal of Forensic Psychology Practice, 9, 103-126.

27.

Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 117-140.

28.

Frost, B. C., Ko, C-H. E., & James, L. R. (2007). Implicit and explicit personality: A test of a channeling hypothesis for aggressive behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 1299-1319.

29.

Fleury, R. E., Sullivan, C. M., Bybee, D. I., & Davison, W. S., II (1998). What happened depends on whom you ask: A comparison of police records and victims reports regarding arrests for woman battering. Journal of Criminal Justice, 26, 53-59.

30.

Gardner, W. L., Pickett, C. L., & Brewer, M. B. (2000). Social exclusion and selective memory:How the need to belong influences memory for social events. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 486-496.

31.

Gay, P. (1993). The cultivation of hatred. New York: W. W. Norton.

32.

Gentile, D. A., Lynch, P. J., Linder, J. R., & Walsh, D. A. (2004). The effects of violent video game habits on adolescent hostility, aggressive behaviors, and school performance. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 5-22.

33.

Gentile, D. A., Saleem, M., & Anderson, C. A. (2007). Public policy and the effects of media violence on children. Social Issues and Policy Review, 1, 15-51.

34.

Gregoski, M., Malone, W. A., Richardson, D. S. (2005). Measuring direct and indirect aggression: Is there a response bias? Psychological Reports, 97, 563-566.

35.

Gunter, B. (2008). Media violence: Is there a case for causality? American Behavioral Scientist, 51, 1061-1122.

36.

Harris, M. M., Anseel, F., & Lievens, F. (2008). Keeping up with the Joneses: A field study of the relationships among upward, lateral, and downward comparisons and pay level satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 665-673.

37.

Heine, S. J., Buchtel, E. B., & Norenzayan, A (2008). What do cross-national comparisons of personality traits tell us? The case of conscientiousness. Psychological Science, 19, 309-313

38.

Hogan, J. & Hogan, R. (1989). How to measure employee reliability. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 273-279.

39.

Hofer, J., & Chasiotis, A. (2004). Methodological considerations of applying a TAT-Type picture-story test in cross-cultural research. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 35, 224-241.

40.

Hofman, D. & Schutter, D. J. L. G. (2009). Inside the wire: Aggression and functional interhemispheric connectivity in the human brain. Psychophysiology, 46, 1054-1058.

41.

Hooper, A. C. & Sackett, P. R. (2008, April). Self-representation on personality measures: A meta-analysis. In Peterson MH (chair), Examining faking using within-subjects designs and applicant data. Symposium presented at 23rd Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, San Francisco, CA.

42.

Hopf, W. H., Huber, G. L., & Weiβ, R. H. (2008). Media violence and youth violence: A 2-year longitudinal study. Journal of Media Psychology: Theories, Methods, and Applications, 20, 79-96.

43.

Huesmann, L. R. & Guerra, N. G. (1997). Children’s normative beliefs about aggression and aggressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 408-419.

44.

Jackson, D. N. (1984). Personality research form manual (3rded.). Port Huron, MI: Research Psychologists Press.

45.

James, L. R. (1998). Measurement of personality via conditional reasoning. Organizational Research Methods, 1, 131-163.

46.

James, L. R., & Mazerolle, M. D. (2001). Personality in work organizations, Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage.

47.

James, L. R., McIntyre, M. D., Glisson, C. A., Bowler, J. L, & Mitchell, T. R. (2004). The conditional reasoning measurement system for aggression: An overview. Human Performance, 17, 271-295.

48.

James, L. R., McIntyre, M. D., Glisson, C. A., Green, P. D., Patton, T. W., LeBreton, J. M., et al. (2005). Conditional reasoning: An efficient, indirect method for assessing implicit cognitive readiness to aggress. Organizational Research Methods, 8, 69-99.

49.

John, A. (1999). Assessment of the reliability of the conflict tactics scales: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14, 1263-1289.

50.

Johnson, R. E., Tolentino, A. L., Rodopman, O. B., & Cho, E. (2010). We (sometimes) know not how we feel: Predicting job performance with an implicit measure of trait affectivity. Personnel Psychology, 63, 197- 219.

51.

Judge, T. A., Higgins, C. A., Thoresen, C. J., & Barrick, M. R. (1999). The big five personality traits, general mental ability, and career success across the life span. Personnel Psychology, 52, 621-652.

52.

Kaufmann, H. (1965). Definitions and methodology in the study of aggression, Psychological Bulletin, 64, 351-364.

53.

Kernis, M. H., Grannemann, B. D., & Barclay, L. C. (1989). Stability and level of self-esteem as predictors of anger arousal and hostility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 1013-1022.

54.

Kirkpatrick, L. A., Waugh, C. E., Valencia, A., & Webster, G. D. (2002). The functional domain specificity of self-esteem and the differential prediction of aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 756-767.

55.

Lee, H. J. & Chang, J. Y. (2012). The cross-cultural generalizability of the CRT-RMS to Korean Samples. Korean Journal of Psychology: General, 31, 1059-1071.

56.

Levin, J. & McDevitt, J. (1993). Hate crimes. New York: Plenum Press.

57.

Lipman-Blumen, J. (2005). The allure of toxic leaders: Why we follow destructive bosses and corrupt politicians and how we can survive them. New York: Oxford University Press.

58.

McClelland, D. C., Koestner, R. & Weinberger, J. (1989). How do self-attributed and implicit motives differ? Psychological Review, 96, 690-702.

59.

Nuijens, K. L., Teglasi, H., & Hancock, G. R. (2009). Self-perceptions, discrepancies between self- and other- perceptions, and children’s self-reported emotions. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 27, 477-493.

60.

Olson, B. D. & Evans, D. L. (1999). The role of the Big Five personality dimensions in the direction and affective consequences of everyday social comparisons. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 1498-1508.

61.

Pennebaker, J. W. & King. L. A. (1999). Linguistic styles: Language use as an individual differences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1296-1312.

62.

Ramírez, J. M. & Andreu, J. M. (2006). Aggression, and some related psychological constructs (anger, hostility, and impulsivity):Some comments from a research project. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 30, 276-291.

63.

Richardson, D. S. & Hammock, G. S. (2003). Defining nondirect aggression raises general questions about the definition of aggression. Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale, 16, 5-10.

64.

Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

65.

Rosenzweig, S. (1977). Outline of a denotative definition of aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 3, 379-383.

66.

Rudman, L. A. (2004). Social justice in our minds, homes, and society: The nature, causes, and consequences of implicit bias. Social Justice Research, 17, 129-142.

67.

Sablynski, C. J, Mitchell, T. R., James, L., R. & McIntyre, M. (2001). Identifying aggressive individuals via conditional reasoning: An experimental study. Paper presented at the Academy of Management Conference, Washington, DC, August, 2001.

68.

Salmivalli, C., Ojanen, T., Haanpaa, J., & Peets, K. (2005). “I’m OK but you’re not” and other peer-relational schemas: Explaining individual differences in children’s social goals. Developmental Psychology, 41, 363-375.

69.

Schippell, P. L., Vasey, M. W., Cravens-Brown, L. M., & Bretveld, R. A. (2003). Suppressed attention to rejection, ridicule, and failure cues: A unique correlate of reactive3 but not proactive aggression in youth. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 32, 40-55.

70.

Smith, P. & Waterman, M. (2004). Role of experience in processing bias for aggressive words in forensic and non-forensic populations. Aggressive Behaviors, 30, 105- 122.

71.

Swider, B. W. & Zimmerman, R. D. (2010). Born to burnout: A meta-analytic path model of personality, job burnout, and work outcomes. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 76, 487-506.

72.

Thrash, T. M., Elliot, A. J., & Schultheiss (2007). Methodological and dispositional predictors of congruence between implicit and explicit need for achievement. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 961-974.

73.

Trend, D. (2007). The myth of media violence: A critical introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.

74.

Twenge, J. M. & Campbell, W. K. (2003). “Isn’t it fun to get the respect that we’re going to deserve?” Narcissism, social rejection, and aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 261-272.

75.

van Honk, J., & de Haan, E. H. F. (2001). Conscious and unconscious processing of emotional faces. In B. de Gelder, E. H. F. de Hann, & C. Heywood (Eds.), Out of mind:Varieties of unconscious processing (pp. 222-237). New York: Oxford University Press.

76.

Warburton, W. A., Williams, K. D., & Cairns, D. R. (2006). When ostracism leads to aggression: The moderating effects of control deprivation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 213-220.

77.

Waldman, I. D. (1996). Aggressive boys’ hostile perceptual and response biases: The role of attention and impulsivity. Child Development, 67, 1015-1033.

78.

Wason, P. C. (1960). On the failure to eliminate hypotheses in a conceptual task. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 12, 129-140.

79.

Whanger, J. C. (2000). The effect of raters’aggressive personality on performance ratings. Unpublished manuscript.

80.

Wilkowski, B. M., Robinson, M. D., Gordon, R. D., & Tropp-Gordon, W. (2007). Tracking the evil eye: Trait anger and selective attention within ambiguously hostile scenes. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 650- 666.

81.

Young, E. L., Boye, A. E., & Nelson, D. A. (2006). Relational aggression: Understanding, identifying, and responding in schools. Psychology in the Schools, 43, 297-312.

82.

Zadro, L., Williams, K. D., & Richardson, R. (2004). How long can you go? Ostracism by computer is sufficient to lower self-reported levels of belonging, control, self-esteem, and meaningful existence, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 560-567.

Korean Journal of Psychology: General