바로가기메뉴

본문 바로가기 주메뉴 바로가기

logo

무엇이 트라우마인가? 진화심리학적 측면에서 본 트라우마의 이해와 분류

What is Trauma? Understanding and Classification based on the Evolutionary Perspective

한국심리학회지: 일반 / Korean Journal of Psychology: General, (P)1229-067X; (E)2734-1127
2015, v.34 no.2, pp.565-598
이홍석 (한림대학교)
이흥표 (대구사이버대학교)
권기준 (대구사이버대학교)
최윤경 (계명대학교)
이재호 (계명대학교)
  • 다운로드 수
  • 조회수

초록

본 연구에서는 진화심리학적 관점에 근거하여 트라우마를 이해하고 분류하고자 하였다. 생명체는 개체 보존과 종족 보존을 자연적 목표로 하며 트라우마는 유기체의 생존과 안전 및 번성을 위협하는 심각한 사건이다. 이에 대한 두려움-기억 회로 및 철수, 공격적 대응, 회피, 유화, 주의 부동, 긴장성 부동 등은 진화과정에서 내장된 트라우마의 핵심적 반응이자 대처기전이다. 본 연구에서는 중생대-신생대-구석기 시대-신석기 시대의 각 진화적 시기 별로 인류의 조상들이 진화적 적응환경에서 당면해 온 위협들을 적대적 자연에 의한 위협, 종간 경쟁에 의한 위협, 종내 경쟁-집단간 경쟁 및 집단내 경쟁에 의한 위협, 발달 외상 및 인위적 위협 등으로 구분하고 각각에 따른 외상적 사건을 분류하였다. DSM-5의 외상 및 외상후 스트레스 진단체계는 진화 과정에서 출현한 인간 종의 고유한 특성, 즉 심리적 안전의 중요도, 발달 외상과 관계 외상 및 개체의 취약성 등을 간과하고 있다. 또한 진화심리학적 측면에서 외상에 대한 치료적 시사점 및 본 연구의 한계점을 논하였다.

keywords
trauma, evolution, evolutionary psychology, 트라우마, 외상, 진화, 진화심리학

Abstract

This study was based on evolutionary psychology perspective to understand and classify trauma. Organisms naturally targets conservation and preservation of species and trauma is a serious incident that threatens the survival, safety and flourish of the organism. Fear-memory circuits, withdrawal, aggressive defense, appeasement, attentive immobility, tonic immobility and etc. followed by the incidents are core reactions and coping mechanisms of trauma which are built in during the evolutionary process. In this study, we separated the time by each evolutionary era (Mesozoic-Cenozoic -Paleolithic -Neolithic) also, separated and classified the threats that human ancestors faced in the environment of evolutionary adaptation into several types; threats by hostile nature, threats posed by intraspecific competition - intergroup competition and intragroup competition, traumatic events such as interspecies competition threats, a developmental trauma, artificial threats etc. The DSM-5 diagnostic system for Trauma and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder has overlooked the unique characteristics of human beings, in other words, the importance of psychological safety as well as the developmental trauma and object relation trauma, and vulnerability of the objects that emerged in the evolution of the human species. In addition, we also discussed therapeutic implications on trauma on evolutionary perspective.

keywords
trauma, evolution, evolutionary psychology, 트라우마, 외상, 진화, 진화심리학

참고문헌

1.

경향신문 (2012). 미국 총기 사고 사망자 수, 2015년엔 교통사고 추월할 듯. http://news.khan.co.kr/kh_news/khan_art_view.html?artid=201212192254315&code=970201.

2.

자동차신문 (2012). 도로교통공단, 지난해 교통사고 사망자 5,229명. http://autotimes.hankyung.com/apps/news.sub_view?popup=0&nid=01&c1=01&c2=01&c3=00&nkey=201205230217591

3.

이우경, 최은실 (2013). 아동기 외상 경험이 경계선 성격특성에 미치는 영향: 애착 불안정의 매개효과. 한국심리학회지: 임상, 32(2), 413-430.

4.

이흥표 (2014). 신경증 외래 환자 집단에서 사회적 배척과 자살 사고와의 관계 및 우울의 매개효과 검증. 한국심리학회지: 일반, 33(1), 1-24.

5.

이흥표, 이상규 (2012). 사회적 배척이 정서적안녕감과 우울에 미치는 영향 및 친사회적 수용경험의 중재효과 분석 -일반집단과 신경증집단의 비교. 한국심리학회지: 임상, 31(1), 253-270.

6.

Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1973). The development of infant-mother attachment. In B. M. Caldwell, & H. N. Ricciuti(Eds.), Review of child development research(Vol. 3, pp.1-94). Chicago:University of Chicago Press.

7.

American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

8.

American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

9.

Alvarez, L. W., Alvarez, W., Asaro, F., & Michel, H. V. (1980). Extraterrestrial cause for the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction. Science, 208, 1095-1108.

10.

Baer, J. C., & Martinez, C. D. (2006). Child maltreat and insecure attachment: A meta-analysis. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 24, 187-197.

11.

Barchas, P. (1986). A sociophysiological orientation to small groups. In E. Lawler(Ed.), Advances in group processes(Vol. 3, pp.209-246). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

12.

Barnett, D., Ganiban, J., & Cicchetti, D. (1999). Maltreatment, negative expressivity, and the development of type D attachments from 12to 24 months of age. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 64, 97-118.

13.

Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497-529.

14.

Beck, A. T. (1972). Depression; Causes and treatment. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

15.

Benton, M. J. (2007). 대멸종 [When life nearly died: The greatest mass extinction of all time.]. (류운 역). 서울: 뿌리와 이파리. (원저 출판 2005)

16.

Betzig, L. L. (1986). Despotism and differential reproduction: A Darwinian view of history. Hawthorne, New York: Aldine.

17.

Bloom, S. L. (2010). Bridging the black hole of trauma: The evolutionary significance of the arts. Psychotherapy and Politics International, 8(3), 198-212.

18.

Bracha, H. (2006). Human brain evolution and the neuroevolutionary time-depth principle:Implications for the reclassification of fear-circuitry-related traits in DSM-V and for studying resilience to warzone-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 30(5), 827-853.

19.

Brewers, Marily. B. (1999). The psychology of prejudice: Ingroup love and outgroup hate?. Journal of Social Issues, 55(3), 429-444.

20.

Briere, J. (1996). A self trauma model for treating adult survivors of severe child abuse. In J. Briere, L. Berliner, J. A. Bulkley, C. Jenny &T. Reid (Eds.) The APSAC handbook on child maltreatment (pp.140-157). New York: Guilford Press.

21.

Bolles, R. (1970). Species-specific defense reactions and avoidance learning. Psychological Review, 77(1), 32-48.

22.

Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss, Vol. 1:Attachment. New York: Basic Books.

23.

Buss, D. (2007). The evolution of human mating. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 39(3), 502-512.

24.

Buss, D., & Schmitt, D. (1993). Sexual strategies theory: An evolutionary perspective on human mating. Psychological Review, 100(2), 204-232.

25.

Buss. L. (1983). Evolution, development, and the units of selection. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences of USA, 80, 1387-1391.

26.

Cannon, W. (1932). Wisdom of the body. United States: W. W. Norton & Company.

27.

Cantor, C. (2009). Post-traumatic stress disorder:Evolutionary perspectives. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 43, 1038-1048.

28.

Cantor C. (2005). Evolution and post-traumatic stress:Disorders of vigilance and defence. Hove:Routledge.

29.

Cantor, C., & Price, J. (2007). Traumatic entrapment, appeasement and complex post-traumatic stress disorder: Evolutionary perspectives of hostage reactions, domestic abuse and the Stockholm syndrome. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 41, 377-384.

30.

Connell, J. H. (1983). On the prevalence and relative importance of interspecific competition:Evidence from field experiments. The American Naturalist, 122(5), 661-696.

31.

Daly, M., & Wilson, M. (1985). Child abuse and other risks of not living with both parents. Ethology and Sociobiology, 6(4), 197.

32.

Darwin, C. (2009). 종의 기원 [On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life (1st ed.)]. (송철영 역). 서울: 동서문화사. (원저 출판 1859년)

33.

Darwin, C. (2006). 인간의 유래 1, 2. [The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex (1st ed.)]. (김관선 역). 서울: 한길사. (원저 출판1871)

34.

Dawkins, R. (2004). The ancestor's tale, a pilgrimage to the dawn of life. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

35.

de Wall, F. (2007). 영장류의 평화 만들기[Peacemaking among Primates]. (김희정 역). (2007). 서울: 새물결. (원저 출판 1990)

36.

de Wall, F. (2004). 침팬지 폴리틱스 [Chimpanzee politics: Power and sex among apes]. (황상익 역). 서울: 바다출판사. (원저 출판 1982)

37.

Dunbar, R. I. M. (1993). Coevolution of neocortical size, group size, and language in humans. Behavioral and Brain Science, 16, 681-735.

38.

Dubowitz, H., Papas, M. A., Black, M. M., & Starr, R. H. (2002). Child neglect: Outcomes in high-risk urban preschoolers. Pediatrics, 109(6), 1100-1107.

39.

Eisenberger, N. I., Liberman, M. D., & Williams, K. D. (2003). Does rejection hurt? An fMRI study of social exclusion. Science, 302, 290-292.

40.

Eisenberger, N. I., Matthew, D., & Lieberman. M. D. (2004). Why rejection hurts? A common neural alarm system for physical and social pain. Trends in Cognitive Science, 8(7), 294-300.

41.

Ekman, P. (1992). An argument for basic emotions. Cognition and Emotion, 6, 169-200.

42.

Ekman, P., & Friesen. W. W. (1975). Unmasking the face: A guide to recognizing emotions from the face clues. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

43.

Engel, G. L. (1977). The clinical application of biopsychosocial model. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 137(5), 535-544.

44.

Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: W. W. Norton and Company.

45.

Foa, E. B., Cashman, L., Jaycox, L., & Perry, K. (1997). The validation of a self-report measure of posttraumatic stress disorder: The Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale. Psychological Assessment, 9(4), 445-451.

46.

Foley, R. (1996) The adaptive legacy of human evolution: A search for the environment of evolutionary adaptedness. Evolutionary Anthropology, 4, 194-203.

47.

Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1988). Coping as a mediator of emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(3), 466-475.

48.

Freud, S. (1917). Trauer und Melancholie [Mourning and Melancholia]. Internationale Zeitschrift für Ärztliche Psychoanalyse [International Journal for Medical Psychoanalysis](in German) (Leipzig and Vienna: Hugo Heller), 4(6), 288-301. Retrieved August 12, 2014.

49.

Gabbard, G. O. (2005). Mind, brain, and personality disorders. American Journal of Pychiatry, 162(4), 648-655.

50.

Gilbert, P. (1993). Defense and safety: Their function in social behavior and psychopathology. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 32, 131-153.

51.

Goodall J. (1986). The chimpanzees of Gombe. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

52.

Greenberg, D. J., Hillman, D., Grice, D. (1973). Infant and stranger variables related to stranger anxiety in the first year of life. Developmental Psychology, 9(2), 207-212.

53.

Greenberg, L. S., & Paivio, S. C. (2008). 심리치료에서 정서를 어떻게 다룰 것인가 [Working with Emotions in Psychotherapy]. (이흥표 역). 서울: 학지사. (원저 출판 1997)

54.

Greene, H. W. (1999). Natural history and behavioral homology. Homology(Novatis Foundation Symposium 222)(pp.173-188). Chichester: Wiley.

55.

Harcourt, A. H. (1997). Sperm competition in primates. The American Naturalist, 149(1), 189-194.

56.

Harlow, H. F. (1964). Early social deprivation and later behavior in the monkey. In A. Abrams, H. H. Gurner, & J. E. P. Tomal(Eds.), Unfinished tasks in the behavioral sciences(pp. 154-173). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.

57.

Hart, H., & Rubia, K. (2012). Neuroimaging of child abuse: A critical review. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 52.

58.

Hausfater, G. (1984). Infanticide: Comparative and evolutionary perspectives. Current Anthropology, 25(4), 500-502.

59.

Havel, J. E. (1987). Predator-induced defenses: A review. In W. C. Kerfoot & A. Sih(Eds.), Predation: Direct and indirect impacts on aquatic communities.(pp.263-278). New Hampshire, Hanover,: University Press of New England.

60.

Herman, J. (1992). Complex PTSD: A syndrome in survivors of prolonged and repeated trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 3, 377-391.

61.

Hide, G. (1999). History of sleeping sickness in East Africa. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 12(1), 112-125.

62.

Hrdy. S. B. (2014). 어머니의 탄생 [Mother nature:A history of mothers, infants and natural selection]. (황희선 역). 서울: 사이언스북스. (원저 출판 1999)

63.

Hrdy, D. B. (1977). Infanticide as a primate reproductive strategy. American Scientist, 65(1), 40-49.

64.

Isbell, L. A. (2009). The fruit, the tree, and the serpent: Why we see so well. Cambridge, London: Harvard University Press.

65.

Izard, C. E. (1977). Human emotions. New York:Plenum.

66.

Janis, I. L. (1982). Decision making under stress. In L. Goldberger & S. Breznitz(Eds.), Handbook of stress: Theoretical and clinical aspects(pp.69-87). New York: Free Press.

67.

Keeley, L. H. (1996). War before civilization: The myth of the peaceful savage. New York: Oxford University Press.

68.

Kira, I. A., Templin. T., Lewandowski. L., Ashby. J. J., Oladele. A., Odenat. L. (2012). Cumulative Trauma Disorder Scale (CTD):Two studies. Psychology, 3(9), 643-656.

69.

Kim, J., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). Longitudinal pathways linking child maltreatment, emotion regulation, peer relations, and psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(6), 706-716.

70.

Klein, M. (1946). Notes on some schizoid mechanisms. In lib. Envy and gratitude and other works. Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis(published 1975).

71.

Kubany, E. S., Haynes, S. N., Leisen, M. B., Owens, J. A., Kaplan, A. S., Watson, S. B., & Burns, K. (2000). Development and preliminary validation of a brief broadspectrum measure of trauma exposure: The Traumatic Life Events Questionnaire. Psychological Assessment, 12, 210-224.

72.

Lai, C. S., Fisher, S. E., Hurst, J. A., Vargha-Khadem, F., & Monaco, A. P. (2001). A forkhead-domain gene is mutated in a severe speech and language disorder. Nature, 413(6855), 519-523.

73.

Lazarus, L. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.

74.

LeDoux, J. E., Romanski, L., & Xagoraris, A. (1991). Indelibility of subcortical emotional memories. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 1, 238-243.

75.

Lovejoy, C. O. (1981). The origin of man. Science, 211(4480), 341-350.

76.

MacLean, P. D. (1985). Brain evolution relating to family, play and the separation call. Archive of General Psychiatry, 42, 405-417.

77.

Marlowe, F. W. (2000). Paternal investment and the human mating system. Behavioral Processes, 51(1-3), 45-61.

78.

Maslow, A. H. (1968). Toward a psychology of being. New York: Van Nostrand.

79.

Maynard, S. J., & Szathmáry, E. (1997). The major transitions in evolution. Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press.

80.

Marks, I. M. (1987). Fears, phobias, and rituals:Panic, anxiety, and their disorders. New York:Oxford University Press.

81.

Marks, I. M., & Nesse, R. M. (1997). Fear and fitness: An evolutionary analysis of anxiety disorders. In S. Baron-Cohen(Ed.), The maladpated mind: Classic readings in evolutionary psychology. Hove: Psychoogy Press.

82.

McElreath, R., & Henrich, J. (2007). Dual inheritance theory: The evolution of human cultural capacities and cultural evolution. In R. Dunbar & L. Barrett(Eds.), Oxford handbook of evolutionary psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

83.

Mitani, J. C., Watts, D. P., & Amsler, S. J. (2010). Lethal intergroup aggression leads to territorial expansion in wild chimpanzees. Current Biology, 20(12), 507-508.

84.

Ohman, A. (1986). Face the beast and fear the face: Animal and social fears as prototypes for evolutionary analysis of emotion. Psychophysiology, 23, 123-145.

85.

Parker, G. A. (1970). Sperm competition and its evolutionary consequences in the insects. Biological Review, 45(4), 525-567.

86.

Pavlov, I. P. (1927, 1960). Conditional reflexes. New York: Dover Publications.

87.

Pusey, A. E., & Packer, C. (1994). Infanticide in lions. In S. Parmigiani & F. S. vom Saal(Eds.), Infanticide and parental care. Chur, Switzerland: Harwood Academic Press.

88.

Plutchik, R. (1962). The emotions: Fact, theories, and a new model. New York: Random House.

89.

Poulton, R., Davis, S., Menzies, R. G., Langley, J. D., Silva, P. A. (1998). Evidence for on-associative model of acquisition of a fear of heights. Behavior Research and Therapy, 36, 537-544.

90.

Rauch, S. L., Van der Kolk, B. A., Fisler, R. E., Alpert, N. M., Orr, S. P., Savage, C. R., Fischman, A. J., Jenike, M. A., & Pitman, R. K. (1996). A symptom provocation study of posttraumatic stress disorder using positron emission tomography and script-drive imagery. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 380-387.

91.

Reno, P. L., Meindl, R. S., McCollum, M. A., & Lovejoy, C. O. (2003). Sexual dimorphism in Australopithecus afarensis was similar to that of modern humans. Proceedings of the National Academy Sciences of the United States of America, 100(16), 9404-9409.

92.

Richerson, P. J., Boyd, R. (2005). Not by genes alone: How culture transformed human evolution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

93.

Robin, F. (1997). Reproduction & succession: Studies in anthropology, law and society. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.

94.

Ronald, R. (2006). 진보의 함정 [A short history of life]. (김해식 역). (2006). 서울: 이론과 실천. (원저 출판 2005년)

95.

Ruse, M., & Travis, J. (eds) (2009). Evolution:The first four billion years. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

96.

Schore, A. (2003). Affect regulation and disorders of the self. New York: Norton.

97.

Singer, P. (1999). 사회생물학과 윤리 [The Expanding Circle: Ethics and Sociobiology]. (김성한 역). 서울: 인간사랑. (원저 출판 1981)

98.

Sullivan, G. M., & Gorman, J. M. (2002). Finding a home for post-traumatic stress disorder in biological psychiatry: Is it a disorder of anxiety, mood, stress, or memory? Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 25, 463-468.

99.

Symons, D. (1992). On the use and misuse of Darwinism in the study of human behavior. In J. H. Barkow., L. Cosmides., & J. Tooby (Eds.), The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture(pp.137-159). New York: Oxford University Press.

100.

Tajfel, H., Billig, M. G., Bundy, R. P., & Flament, C. (1971). Social categorization and intergroup behaviour. European Journal of Social Psychology, 1(2), 149-178.

101.

Taylor, S. E. (2006). Health psychology. Boston:McGraw-Hill Education.

102.

Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. (2000). Evolutionary psychology and emotions In M. Lewis, & J. M. Harviland-Jones(Eds.), Handbook of emotions. New York: Guildford.

103.

Tomkins, S. S. (1963). Affect, imagery, consciousness. Vol 2. The negative affect. New York: Springer.

104.

Van Der Kolk, B. A. (1996). Trauma and memory. In B. A. Van der Kolk, C. McFarlane & L. Weisaeth(Eds.), Traumatic stress: The effects of overwhelming experience on mind, body, and society. New York: Guilford Press.

105.

Weathers, F. W., Blake, D. D., Schnurr, P. P., Kaloupek, D. G., Marx, B. P., & Keane, T. M. (2013). The Life Events Checklist for DSM-5(LEC-5). Instrument available from the National Center for PTSD at www.ptsd.va.gov.

106.

Wenegrat, B. (1984). Sociobiology and mental disorder:A new view. Menlo Park, CA: Addison-Wesley.

107.

Weiten, W., Lloyd, M. A., Dunn, D. S., & Hammer, E. Y. (2009) Psychology applied to modern life: Adjustment in the 21st century (9th ed.). Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.

108.

Wikipedia. (2013). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megazostrodon.

109.

Wikipedia. (2013). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zalambdalestes.

110.

Williams, J. M., Lonsdorf, G. V., Wilson, M. L., Schumacher-Stankey, J. Goodall, J., & Pusey, A. E. (2008). Causes of death in the Kasekela chimpanzees of Gombe National Park, Tanzania. American Journal of Primatology 70, 766-777.

111.

Wilson, E. O. (2011). 인간 본성에 대하여 [On human nature]. (이한음 역). 서울: 사이언스 북스. (원저 출판 1978년)

112.

World Health Organization. (1992). International Classification of Diseases(ICD). online at http://www.who.int/classifications

113.

Zeidner, M., & Endler, N. S. (1996). Handbook of coping: Theory, research, applications. New York:John Wiley.

한국심리학회지: 일반