Korean Journal of Psychology: General
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ISSN : 1229-067X
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Vol.2 No.4
Abstract
Four mechanisms have been proposed to explain a developmental increase in short-term memory (STM) capacity: Rehearsal, encoding, organization, and persistence of memory trace. Two experiments were designed to test these mechanisms. Experiment I dealt with three factors, subjects' age, intelligence, and presentation time of stimuli, in a digit STM task. A significant interaction effect was observed between age and presentation time, but not between intelligence and presentation time. These findings suggest that intelligence and age of the subject affect the STM capacity via different mechanisms. In particular, age influences the STM capacity through speeding up encoding operation. Primacy effect was obtained, regardless of age, intelligence, and presentation time, suggesting that rehearsal is not a major determinant of the increase in STM capacity. Experment II further included the manipulation of categorical relatedness of words in a stimulus list. It was found that age affects encoding speed, whereas intelligence influences organization process. Rehearsal is again rejected on the ground that primacy effect was obtained in all conditions. Experiment II also revealed signicant interactions between presentation time and clustering size and between intelligence and clustering size at retrieval. These findings suggest that persistence of memory trace depends to a large extent on organization of items at input. Hence, three out of four mechanisms are proved to be major determinants of the STM capacity. These findings call for shift to a multi-process view of the development of the STM capacity.
Abstract
Eight triadic relations were presented to 40 male and 40 female Ss. In each triad subject (P), other person (O), and object (X) were involved. Concreteness of other person and object were varied using the abstract or concrete other person and object. Ss were asked to indicate (1) the degree of unpleasantness and (2) the degree of willingness to change P-O, P-X, and O-X relation of the triadic relations on the 11-point scales. The concrete condition received higher pleasant ratings than the abstract condition. and disagreement made the differences in pleasantness among the concreteness conditions. On the score of willingness to change P-X relation, the positive P-O situation received higher score than negative P-O situation received higher score than negative P-O situation in the concrete condition, while the negative P-O situation received higher scores than positive P-O situation in the abstract condition. The theories of Heider and Newcomb received more support in the abstract condition than in the concrete condition on the score of willingness to change O-X relation. The male Ss gave higher pleasant ratings to the positive P-O situations and lower pleasant ratings to the negative P-O situations than the female Ss, while the female Ss gave higher pleasant ratings to the agreement situations and lower pleasant ratings to the disagreement situations than the male Ss. The male Ss gave higher scores of willingness to change P-O, O-X and negative P-O relation than the female Ss. The O-X relation received higher willingness to change scores than P-O and P-X relation. Newcomb's revision was not supported in the pattern of balance effect on the pleasantness ratings.
Abstract
The present article reviewed empirical studies of industrial organizations existing in Korea as of 1979. Those articles which dealt with Korean industrial organization from the behavioral perspective were selected from among the research reports, master's theses, and doctoral dissertations in the areas of industrial psychology, organizational psychology, and business administration, and their contents and results summarized according to their themes. Selected studies were classified according to their central themes into the following six categories: (1) Motivation, (2) job attitude, (3) job satisfaction, (4) leader· ship, (5) organization, and (6) safety and accident. The common problems of these studies which were the object of this review were presented and the research task and direction of future industrial psychology in Korea suggested.
Abstract
In order to find out what the younger generation's ideal leadership type is and whether the young people have a democratic attitude, incoming freshmen of a college from ),972 through 1979 (except the year 1978 for which data are lost) were asked to indicate one preferred type from anong seven different leadership type itself, the question asked the subjects to choose one leadership type under which they would rather rear their children as parents. The number of subjects varied from year to year from 235 to 381. The principal findings were (1) the majority of the students considered a mixture of democratic and autocratic types as most ideal; (2) the next most preferred types, in the decreasing order, were the democratic type, the mixture of democratic and laissez-faire, and the mixture of democratic, autocratic, and laissez-faire The least preferred types were the laissez-faire type, the autocratic type, and the mixture of these two; and lastly (3) in 1979, as compared to previous years, the student preference for the mixture of democratic and autocratic declined while their preference for the democratic type clearly increased. The preference for the democratic type had been steadily decreasing since 1972 until 1977 before it showed all upturn in 1979.
Abstract
There has been a long controversy about the effect of TV violence on adolescents' aggression. Social learning theory predicts modelling effect of TV violence while catharsis hypothesis posits its' cathartic effect. Results of empirical studi.es on the issue revealed inconsistency. Survey and laboratory experiment studies tend to support the learning theory prediction while field experiment studies have been inclined to show negative data. Regardless of the results, most of those previous studies suffer from methodological weakness. Survey studies were mostly relied on retrospective type of self report on TV effect, which subsequently leads to validity problem and difficulty with causal interpretation of the obtained data. Laboratory experiments are susceptible to the question of external validity. The duration of exposure to violent scenes or acts was too short in comparison with TV exposure time in real life. The dependent measures, e.g., aggressive acts in laboratory studies were not the kind of antisocial aggression about which society has been concerned. Field experimental studies are considered superior in that it could reduce the: problem of external validity. However, further sophistications of field experiment in methodology are demanded. Time of exposure to violence needs to be lengthened and dependent measures of aggression are better obtained in diverse natural settings.
Abstract
The usefulness of brainstorming as a group problem solving procedure was assessed by comparing the effects on performance of brainstorming instructions and nonbrainstorming instructions in real groups. There were four independent groups of subjects, each group working on two problems, one under brainstorming instructions and another under nonbrainstorming instructions. The order of problems and instructions were varied from group to gioup. Sixty-four undergraduates worked in 16 groups of four. The study was essentially a replication of Parnes and Meadow (1959) except that (1) as a measure of quality, quality ratings of the best ideas rather than the number of good ideas were used, and (2) group means rather than the means of individual subjects were used as data points in order to provide for more appropriate error term in the analysis of variance. Results showed that more ideas were produced when working under brainstorming instructions relative to non-brainstorming instructions, but the quality of the best ideas produced by individuals was not significantly different between the two kinds of instructions. The results on total output of ideas are consistent with the findings of the earlier study, but the results on quality are not. Brainstorming, which was originated and first used by Alex F. Osborn in 1939, has been subjected to experimental tests for its efficacy for a number of years. The methods used to test the technique, which allegedly promote creative thinking, varied from investigator to investigator. Hoffman (1965) and Zagona, Willis, and MacKinnon (1966) who reviewed experimental studies in this area identified three different categories of Studies, namely (1) those studies which compare individual problem solving with group problem solving; (2) those studies which compare between different group problem solving situations, and (3) brainstorming in individuals. The basic features or rules of brainstroming, which consist of (1) ruling out criticism, (2) encouraging "free-wheeling,"(3) an emphasis on quantity rather than quality, and finally (4) encouraging combination of and improvement over others' ideas (See Taylor, Berry, 8c Block, 1958), presuppose interaction among group members, and therefore the brainstorming in individuals does not represent a valid example of brainstorming technique. The studies which compared individual problem solving with groups solving problems under the condition of brainstroming typically used one or more nominal groups which are contrasted with real groups working under brainstorming instructions (e.g., Taylor, Berry, &: Block, 1958; Dunnette, Campbell, & Jaastad, 1963; Parnes & Meadow, 1963). A consistent finding seems to be that individual problem solving is superior to group problem solving when both are done under brainstorming instructions. When the effect of brainstorming is assessed by comparing a nominal group and a real group working under brainstorming instructions, what is actually evaluated may be a function of the difference between individual work and group work rather than the effects of brainstorming itself since individual working condition as against group working condition is the dominant feature separating a nominal group and a real group. A more appropriate procedure for assessing the effects of brainstorming instructions would be to compare two real groups, one performing under brainstorming instructions and another under non-brain storming instructions. There are two studies which studied brainstorming using the procedure recommended here. Meadow, Parnes, and Reese (1959) found that the group working under brainstorming instructions produced more ideas and more of better ideas. In this particular study, all subjects had previously received a semester of training in "creative problem solving methods." In a second study (Parnes & Meadow, 1959), the subjects did not receive this training prior to the experiment, but the study essentially duplicated the earlier study in its major findings. The present study is basically a replication of the Parnes and Meadow study. The present study differs from the study by Parnes and Meadow in two respects. As a measure of quality of the products, Parnes and Meadow (1959) resorted to counting the number of "good" ideas, a good idea being defined as an idea which is up to or exceeds a given standard. As will be developed in greater detail later, the present writers are of the opinion that a more adequate measure of the quality is not the number of good ideas but the goodness of the very best or of a select few best ideas, for in practical situations only the best idea or ideas count and less good ideas, no matter how good they may be, are by and large ignored so long as there is a definitely better idea. The second difference has to do with statistical procedure. In the last mentioned two studies, the investigators used individual subject's score as the unit of analysis instead of using group mean as the unit. Such a statistical procedure is likely to underestimate the within-group variance and thus become a cause for a Type I error. In the present study, this oversight was corrected by using group means as data points.