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- P-ISSN1226-9654
- E-ISSN2733-466X
- KCI
ISSN : 1226-9654
Vol.24 No.3
Abstract
The pretesting effect refers to the enhancement of learning due to unsuccessful retrieval upon being asked a question that is not easily answered. However, the results of research on the effect of overt retrieval on learning, have not been consistent. Therefore, the present study sought to clarify such confusion. We examined whether memory enhancement is affected by the number of wrong answers generated by the examinees and by the duration of retrieval. Four experiments were carried out with college students as participants. In Experiments 1 and 2, we manipulated the number of unsuccessful retrievals to either 1 or 3, and observed that there was no difference in performance. In Experiments 3 and 4, participants were asked to think of possible answers without overt responses. The results showed that the performance was better for those who were asked to think of more answers. The present study also examined whether pretesting effect is found even after a week's duration. After a week, pretesting effect was observed in case of the covert retrieval group; however it did not last for the overt retrieval group. These results support the search set theory by Grimaladi and Karpicke (2012) which states that active exploration of related material promotes learning. The present study also suggests that overt retrieval brings about retrieval competition and interferes with the retrieval of correct responses, and thus disrupts learning.
Abstract
The pretesting effect refers to the enhancement of learning due to unsuccessful retrieval upon being asked a question that is not easily answered, However, the results of research on the effect of overt retrieval on learning, have not been consistent. Therefore, the present study sought to clarify such confusion. We examined whether memory enhancement is affected by the number of wrong answers generated by the examinees and by the duration of retrieval. Four experiments were carried out with college students as participants. In Experiments 1 and 2, we manipulated the number of unsuccessful retrievals to either 1 or 3, and observed that there was no difference in performance. In Experiments 3 and 4, participants were asked to think of possible answers without overt responses. The results showed that the performance was better for those who were asked to think of more answers. The present study also examined whether pretesting effect is found even after a week's duration. After a week, pretesting effect was observed in case of the covert retrieval group; however it did not last for the overt retrieval group. These results support the search set theory by Grimaladi and Karpicke (2012) which states that active exploration of related material promotes learning. The present study also suggests that overt retrieval brings about retrieval competition and interferes with the retrieval of correct responses, and thus disrupts learning.
Abstract
The present study hypothesized 1) that the forgetting effects would be greater for targets with strong item memory strength because the item to be forgotten is clear and easily accessed by cognitive control process, 2) the forgetting effects would be lesser for the cue-target pairs with strong associative memory strength because the effect of interference from other competitive stimuli associated with the cue is relatively smaller using think/no-think (TNT) paradigm demonstrated the facts that unwanted memory can be forgotten intentionally. In Experiment 1, target stimuli had either emotional or neutral content to adjust item memory strength of the target while cue-target pairs were distinguished based on the associative memory strength between cue and target words during a training phase. Results indicated an enhancing effect on the think condition and suppressing effect on the no-think condition following repeated practice given the target contained negative valence rather than neutral valence. In addition, greater suppression was observed when cue-target pairs contained weak associative memory strength. In Experiment 2, instead of targets, the valence of cues was changed to adjust the item memory strength of cue stimuli while maintaining the level of associative memory strength between cue-target pairs. The associative memory strength effect depending on the training level in the learning phase was almost the same as in Experiment 1, but there was no significant difference between valences of cues. The finding indicates that the item memory strength and the associative memory strength have opposite effects on intentional forgetting by the inhibition and interference mechanism respectively.
Abstract
The present study hypothesized 1) that the forgetting effects would be greater for targets with strong item memory strength because the item to be forgotten is clear and easily accessed by cognitive control process, 2) the forgetting effects would be lesser for the cue-target pairs with strong associative memory strength because the effect of interference from other competitive stimuli associated with the cue is relatively smaller using think/no-think (TNT) paradigm demonstrated the facts that unwanted memory can be forgotten intentionally. In Experiment I, target stimuli had either emotional on neutral content to adjust item memory strength of the target while cue-target pairs were distinguished based on the associative memory strength between cue and target words during a training phase. Results indicated an enhancing effect on the think condition and suppressing effect on the no-think condition following repeated practice given the target contained negative valence rather than neutral valence. In addition, greater suppression was observed when cue-target pairs contained weak associative memory strength. In Experiment 2, instead of targets, the valence of cues was changed to adjust the item memory strength of cue stimuli while maintaining the level of associative memory strength between cue-target pairs. The associative memory strength effect depending on the training level in the learning phase was almost the same as in Experiment 1, but there was no significant difference between valences of cues. The finding indicates that the item memory strength and the associative memory strength have opposite effects on intentional forgetting by the inhibition and interference mechanism respectively.
Abstract
Cybersickness accompanies a variety of autonomic symptoms that parallel symptoms of motion sickness. The underlying physiological mechanisms of cybersickness have been controversial and foolproof methods for elimination of cybersickness have not been introduced. This study investigated effects of an independent visual foreground (IVF) which could assist users in selecting a single rest frame in virtual environment (VE) to reduce cybersickness. Twenty-two subjects experienced a VE both with the IVF (IVF condition) and without the IVF (No-IVF condition) with counterbalancing for contol of order effects at an interval of two weeks. Subjective indices of cybersickness were obtained from self-reports and a simulator sickness questionnaire (SSQ). Physiological indices of cybersickness were obtained from the frequency spectrum of electrogastrogram(EGG). A presence questionnaire (PQ) was used to compare the feeling of presence in each condition. The main findings were that the residual percent of normal frequency of EGG was maintained significantly higher level and the residual percent of tachygastria frequency of EGG was maintained significantly lower level in the IVF condition than those in the No-IVF condition. There was a significant correlation between SSQ scores and frequency spectrum of EGG. However, there was no significant difference in PQ scores between IVF and No-IVF conditions, which showed that IVF did not deteriorate the feeling of presence in the VE.. These results suggest that presentation of IVF in VE reduce autonomic symptoms of cybersickness and EGG can be an objective measure of cybersickness. We suggest that use of IVF can be a promising approach to alleviate cybersickness in VE.
Abstract
Humans are capable of learning sequential information from multiple stimulus dimensions simultaneously, but the factors influencing the selection of specific sequences for learning remains unclear. In order to investigate the role of cross-dimensional distinctiveness in sequence learning, in a serial reaction time task, sequences were presented on two dimensions that were very low in distinctiveness. Repeating sequences were presented in two visuospatial dimensions nested hierarchically within each other-a local spatial dimension that specified the correct response on each trial and a global spatial dimension that indicated the general display region of the stimulus. In the phase-repeat condition, the two sequences were consistently matched in phase, allowing an integrated representation of the two sequences to be formed. In the phase-change condition, the two sequences differed in length and were not correlated. In the phase-repeat condition, integrative learning was found for the cross-dimensional pattern, but individual sequence learning was not found. In the phase-change condition only the global sequence was learned, but not the local sequence. Thus, integrative and individual sequence learning did not occur simultaneously, neither was individual sequence learning complete. Furthermore, learning for individual sequences and the cross-dimensional information had an over-additive influence on performance. This pattern of results contrasts with previous research that showed simultaneous learning for both cross-dimensional and individual sequence information presented in highly distinct dimensions. The current results are attributed to the combination of the two closely related dimensions and suggest that individual and integrative sequence learning can be constrained due to interactions between indistinctive dimensions at encoding or working memory activation stages of processing.
Abstract
Humans are capable of learning sequential information from multiple stimulus dimensions simultaneously, but the factors influencing the selection of specific sequences for learning remains unclear. In order to investigate the role of cross-dimensional distinctiveness in sequence learning, in a serial reaction time task, sequences were presented on two dimensions that were very low in distinctiveness. Repeating sequences were presented in two visuospatial dimensions nested hierarchically within each other-a local spatial dimension that specified the correct response on each trial and a global spatial dimension that indicated the general display region of the stimulus. In the phase-repeat condition, the two sequences were consistently matched in phase, allowing an integrated representation of the two sequences to be formed. In the phase-change condition, the two sequences differed in length and were not correlated. In the phase-repeat condition, integrative learning was found for the cross-dimensional pattern, but individual sequence learning was not found. In the phase-change condition only the global sequence was learned, but not the local sequence. Thus, integrative and individual sequence learning did not occur simultaneously, neither was individual sequence learning complete. Furthermore, learning for individual sequences and the cross-dimensional information had an over-additive influence on performance. This pattern of results contrasts with previous research that showed simultaneous learning for both cross-dimensional and individual sequence information presented in highly distinct dimensions. The current results are attributed to the combination of the two closely related dimensions and suggest that individual and integrative sequence learning can be constrained due to interactions between indistinctive dimensions at encoding or working memory activation stages of processing.
Abstract
In searching for targets among a rapidly presented stream of distractors, correct identification for the first target impairs the detection of the following one appearing within a half second after the first one appeared: the attentional blink (AB). Di Lollo and his colleagues (2005) proposed that temporary loss of control of the exogenously-triggered input filter explained the AB: They showed that AB was apparent when a nontarget category item was put in the target string, but diminished when the target string consisted of the same category items. We examined whether the AB effect is also affected by disrupting the uniformity of the online-established, task-irrelevant dimension. In the current study, we manipulated the uniformity of the task-relevant, target-defining dimension (category), following the previous study by Di Lollo et al. as well as the uniformity of the instantly obtained, task-irrelevant dimension (color). The results showed that both task-relevant and task-irrelevant uniformity modulated the AB effects. However, the results also showed that task-relevant category uniformity majorly determined the AB effects and task-irrelevant color uniformity was not able to reduce AB when category uniformity was disrupted.