바로가기메뉴

본문 바로가기 주메뉴 바로가기

logo

Event-related potential study of facial affect recognition in college students with schizotypal traits

The Korean Journal of Cognitive and Biological Psychology / The Korean Journal of Cognitive and Biological Psychology, (P)1226-9654; (E)2733-466X
2016, v.28 no.1, pp.67-97
https://doi.org/10.22172/cogbio.2016.28.1.004


  • Downloaded
  • Viewed

Abstract

This study investigated deficits of facial affect recognition in college students with schizotypal traits using event-related potentials (ERPs). Based on the scores of Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (SPQ), control (n=20) and schizotypal-trait groups (n=20) were selected. The ability of face identification was evaluated with a face-building discrimination test, in which participants were required to distinguish the pictures of human face and building. A facial affect recognition task, in which participants were required to distinguish faces exhibiting positive, negative or neutral emotion, was used for the measurement emotional recognition ability. The results of face-building discrimination task showed that the control and schizotypal-trait groups did not differ significantly in terms of response time and accuracy rate. In addition, the two groups did not differ in N170 amplitude that reflects the structural encoding of face. However, schizotypal-trait group exhibited more errors for negative valence than did the control group, and the two groups showed different ERP patterns in the facial affect recognition task. The control group showed significantly larger N250 amplitudes in response to emotional stimuli than to the neutral ones, whereas schizotypal-trait group exhibited no significant differences in N250 amplitudes between emotional and neutral faces. These findings suggest that individuals with schizotypal traits have difficulties in facial affect recognition, which could be served as a trait marker for schizospectrum disorders.

keywords
Face structural encoding, Facial affect recognition, Schizotypal traits, ERP, N170, N250, 얼굴의 구조적 부호화, 얼굴 정서 인식, 조현형 성격 성향군, 사건관련전위, N170, N250

Reference

1.

문희옥, 양익홍, 이홍표, 김묘은, 함 웅 (1997). 한국판 분열형 성격척도의 타당화 예비연구. 신경정신의학, 36(2), 329-343.

2.

연보라, 윤선아, 김명선 (2011). 분열형 인격 성향군의 자동 대 의식적 얼굴정서처리 과정과 신경심리 기능과의 관련성. 한국심리학회지: 임상, 30(1), 225-245.

3.

염태호, 박영숙, 오경자, 김정규, 이영호 (1992). K-WAIS 실시요강. 서울: 한국 가이던스.

4.

전춘수, 김명선 (2010). 분열형 인격 성향과 강박성향을 가진 여자대학생의 신경심리 프로파일 비교. 한국심리학회지: 임상, 29(2), 1299-1335.

5.

최준식, 김민우, 조양석 (2011). 고려대학교얼굴표정모음집(KUFEC)과 의미미분법을 통한 정서차원평정. 한국심리학회지: 일반, 30(4), 1189-1211.

6.

한오수, 안준호, 송선희, 조맹제, 김장규, 배재남, 조성진, 정범수, 서동우, 함봉진, 이동우, 박종익, 홍진표 (2000). 한국어 판 구조화 임상면담도구 개발: 신뢰도 연구. 신경정신의학, 39(2), 362-372.

7.

Abbott, G., & Byrne, L. K. (2013). Schizotypal traits are associated with poorer identification of emotions from dynamic stimuli. Psychiatry Research, 207(1-2), 40-44. doi:40-44. 0.1016/ j.psychres.2013.03.005.

8.

Addington, J., Saeedi, H., & Addington, D. (2006). Facial affect recognition: a mediator between cognitive and social functioning in psychosis?. Schizophrenia Research, 85(1), 142- 150. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2006.03.028.

9.

Amminger, G, P., Schäfer, M, R., Papageorgiou, K., Klier, C, M., Schlgelöhofer, M., Mossahrb, N., Werneck-Rohrer, S., Nelson, B., & McGorry, P, D. (2012). Emotion recognition in individuals at clinical high-risk for schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 38(5), 1030-1039. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbr015.

10.

Anticevic, A., Van Snellenberg, J. X., Cohen, R. E., Repovs, G., Dowd, E. C., & Barch, D. M. (2010). Amygdala recruitment in schizophrenia in response to aversive emotional material: a meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies. Schizophrenia Bulletin, sbq131. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbq131.

11.

Ashley, V., Vuilleumier, P., & Swick, D. (2004). Time course and specificity of event-related potentials to emotional expressions. Neuroreport, 15(1), 211-216. doi:10.1097/00001756- 200401190-00041.

12.

Balconi, M., & Lucchiari, C. (2005). Event-related potentials related to normal and morphed emotional faces. The Journal of Psychology, 139(2), 176-192. doi:10.3200/JRLP.139.2.176- 192.

13.

Balconi, M., & Lucchiari, C. (2008). Consciousness and arousal effects on emotional face processing as revealed by brain oscillations. A gamma band analysis. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 67(1), 41-46. doi:10.1016/j. ijpsycho.2007.10.002.

14.

Balconi, M., & Pozzoli, U. (2012). Encoding of emotional facial expressions in direct and incidental tasks: an event-related potentials N200 effect. Journal of Neurotherapy, 16(2), 92-109. doi:10.1080/10874208.2012.677659.

15.

Batty, M., & Taylor, M. J. (2003). Early processing of the six basic facial emotional expressions. Cognitive Brain Research, 17(3), 613-620. doi:10.1016/S0926-6410(03)00174-5.

16.

Batty, R. A., Francis, A. J., Innes-Brown, H., Joshua, N. R., & Rossell, S. L. (2014). Neurophysiological correlates of configural face processing in schizotypy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 5(101), doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00101.

17.

Baudouin, J. Y., Martin, F., Tiberghien, G., Verlut, I., & Franck, N. (2002). Selective attention to facial emotion and identity in schizophrenia. Neuropsychologia, 40, 503-511.

18.

Bediou, B., Franck, N., Saoud, M., Baudouin, J, Y., Tiberghien, G., Daléry, J., d’Amato, T. (2005). Effects of emotion and identity on facial affect processing in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research, 133, 149-157. doi:10.1016/ j.psychres.2004.08.008.

19.

Bentin, S., & Deouell, L. Y. (2000). Structural encoding and identification in face processing: ERP evidence for separate mechanisms. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 17, 35-55. doi:http:// dx.doi.org/10.1080/026432900380472.

20.

Blair, R. J. R., Morris, J. S., Frith, C. D., Perrett, D. I., & Dolan, R. J. (1999). Dissociable neural responses to facial expressions of sadness and anger. Brain, 122(5), 883-893. doi:10.1093/brain/122.5.883.

21.

Boutsen, L., Humphreys, G. W., Praamstra, P., & Warbrick, T. (2006). Comparing neural correlates of configural processing in faces and objects: an ERP study of the Thatcher illusion. Neuroimage, 32(1), 352-367. doi:10. 1016/j.neuroimage.2006.03.023

22.

Breiter, H, C., Etcoff, N, L., Whalen, P, J., Kennedy, W, A., Rauch, S, L., Buckner, R, L., Strauss, M, M., Hymanm S, E., & Rosen, B, R. (1996). Response and habituation of the human amygdala during visual processing of facial expression. Neuron, 17, 875-887. doi: 10.1016/S0896-6273(00)80219-6 .

23.

Bruce, V., & Young, A. (1986). Understanding face recognition. British Journal of Psychology, 77(3), 305-327.

24.

Caharel, S., Bernard, C., Thibaut, F., Haouzir, S., Maggio-Clozel, C. D., Allio, G., Fouldrin, G., Petit, M., Lalonde, R., & Rebaï, M. (2007). The effects of familiarity and emotional expression on face processing examined by ERPs in patients with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 95, 186-196. doi:10. 1016/j.schres.2007.06.015.

25.

Calder, A. J., Keane, J., Manes, F., Antoun, N., & Young, A. W. (2000). Impaired recognition and experience of disgust following brain injury. Nature Neuroscience, 3(11), 1077-1078. doi:10.1038/80586.

26.

Campanella, S., Montedoro, C., Streel, E., Verbanck, P., & Rosier, V. (2006). Early visual components (P100, N170) are disrupted in chronic schizophrenic patients: an event- related potentials study. Clinical Neurophysiology, 36(2), 71-78. doi:10.1016/j.neucli.2006.04.005.

27.

Chambon, V., Baudouin, J. Y., & Franck, N. (2006). The role of configural information in facial emotion recognition in schizophrenia. Neuropsychologia, 44(12), 2437-2444. doi:10. 1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.04.008.

28.

Dickey, C. C., McCarley, R. W., & Shenton, M. E. (2002). The brain in schizotypal personality disorder: a review of structural MRI and CT findings. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 10(1), 1-15. doi:10.1080/10673220216201.

29.

Di Russo, F., Martínez, A., Sereno, M. I., Pitzalis, S., & Hillyard, S. A. (2002). Cortical sources of the early components of the visual evoked potential. Human Brain Mapping, 15(2), 95- 111. doi:10.1002/hbm.10010.

30.

Edwards, J., Pattison, P. E., Jackson, H. J., & Wales, R. J. (2001). Facial affect and affective prosody recognition in first-episode schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 48(2), 235-253.

31.

Edwards, J., Jackson, H. J., & Pattison, P. E. (2002). Emotion recognition via facial expression and affective prosody in schizophrenia: a methodological review. Clinical Psychology Review, 22(6), 789-832.

32.

Eimer, M. (2000a). The face-specific N170 component reflects late stages in the structural encoding of faces. Neuroreport, 11(10), 2319- 2324. doi:10.1097/00001756-200007140-00050.

33.

Eimer, M. (2000b). Event-related brain potentials distinguish processing stages involved in face perception and recognition. Clinical Neuropsychology, 111, 694-705. doi:10.1016/ S1388-2457(99)00285-0.

34.

Eimer, M. (2000c). Effects of face inversion on the structural encoding and recognition of faces: evidence from event-related brain potentials. Cognitive Brain Research, 10, 145-158.

35.

Ekman, P., Friesen, W. V., & Ellsworth, P. (1972). Emotion in the human face: guidelines for research and an integration of findings. NY: Pergamon Press Inc..

36.

First, M. B., Spitzer, R. L., Gibbson, M., & Williams, J. B. W. (1996). Structured clinical interview for DSM-IV Axis I disorders. NY: New York State Psychiatric Institute.

37.

Germine, L. T., & Hooker, C. I. (2011). Face emotion recognition is related to individual differences in psychosis-proneness. Psychological Medicine, 41(05), 937-947. doi:10.1017/ S0033291710001571.

38.

Grill-Spector, K., Knouf, N., & Kanwisher, N. (2004). The fusiform face area subserves face perception, not generic within-category identification. Nature Neuroscience, 7(5), 555- 562. doi:10.1038/nn1224.

39.

Haxby, J. V., Hoffman, E. A., & Gobbini, M. I. (2000). The distributed human neural system for face perception. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4(6), 223-233.

40.

Herrmann, M. J., Ellgring, H., & Fallgatter, A. J. (2004). Early-stage face processing dysfunction in patients with schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161(5), 915-917. doi:10.1176/ appi.ajp.161.5.915.

41.

Herrmann, M. J., Ehlis, A. C., Muehlberger, A., & Fallgatter, A. J. (2005). Source localization of early stages of face processing. Brain Topography, 18(2), 77-85. doi:10.1007/s10548- 005-0277-7.

42.

Herrmann, M. J., Reif, A., Jabs, B. E., Jacob, C., & Fallgatter, A. J. (2006). Facial affect decoding in schizophrenic disorders: a study using event-related potentials. Psychiatry Research, 141(3), 247-252. doi:10.1016/j. psychres.2005.09.015.

43.

Hooker, C., & Park, S. (2002). Emotion processing and its relationship in schizophrenia patients. Psychiatry Research, 112, 41-50.

44.

Ibáñez, A., Moya, A., & Baker, P. (2012). Event-related potential studies of cognitive and social neuroscience. In P. Bright (Ed.), Neuroimaging-Cognitive and Clinical Neuroscience. Shanghai: INTECH.

45.

Iidaka, T., Matsumoto, A., Haneda, K., Okada, T., & Sadato, N. (2006). Hemodynamic and electrophysiological relationship involved in human face processing: evidence from a combined fMRI–ERP study. Brain and Cognition, 60(2), 176-186. doi:10.1016/j.bandc. 2005.11.004.

46.

Isaac, L. (2012). Facing the future: face-emotion processing deficits as a potential biomarker for various psychiatric and neurological disorders. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 171. doi:10.3389/ fpsyg.2012.00171.

47.

Jahshan, C. S., & Sergi, M. J. (2007). Theory of mind, neurocognition, and functional status in schizotypy. Schizophrenia Research, 89(1), 278- 286. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2006.09.004.

48.

Johnston, P. J., Stojanov, W., Devir, H., & Schall, U. (2005). Functional MRI of facial emotion recognition deficits in schizophrenia and their electrophysiological correlates. European Journal of Neuroscience, 22, 1221-1232. doi:10.1111/ j.1460-9568.2005.04294.x.

49.

Kanwisher, N., Stanley, D., & Harris, A. (1999). The fusiform face area is selective for faces not animals. Neuroreport, 10(1), 183-187. doi: 10.1097/00001756-199901180-00035.

50.

Kee, K. S., Green, M. F., Mintz, J., & Brekke, J. S. (2003). Is emotion processing a predictor of functional outcome in schizophrenia? Schizophrenia Bulletin, 29(3), 487-497.

51.

Kee, K. S., Horan, W. P., Mintz, J., & Green, M. F. (2004). Do the siblings of schizophrenia patients demonstrate affect perception deficits? Schizophrenia Research, 67(1), 87-94. doi:10. 1016/S0920-9964(03)00217-2.

52.

Kiang, M., & Kutas, M. (2005). Association of schizotypy with semantic processing differences: an event-related brain potential study. Schizophrenia Research, 77(2), 329-342. doi:10. 1016/j.schres.2005.03.021.

53.

Kim, J. J., Youn, T., Lee, J. M., Kim, I. Y., Kim, S. I., & Kwon, J. S. (2003). Morphometric abnormality of the insula in schizophrenia: a comparison with obsessive–compulsive disorder and normal control using MRI. Schizophrenia Research, 60(2), 191-198. doi:10.1016/S0920-9964(02)00306-7.

54.

Kim, M. S., Oh, S. H., Hong, M. H., & Choi, D. B. (2011). Neuropsychologic profile of college students with schizotypal traits. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 52(5), 511-516. doi: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2010.10.010.

55.

Kohler, C. G., Turner, T. H., Bilker, W. B., Brensinger, C. M., Siegel, S. J., Kanes, S. J., Gur, R. E., & Gur, R. C. (2003). Facial emotion recognition in schizophrenia: intensity effects and error pattern. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(10), 1768-1774. doi:10.1176/ appi.ajp.160.10.1768.

56.

Kosmidis, M. H., Bozikas, V. P., Giannakou, M., Anezoulaki, D., Fantie, B. D., & Karavatos, A. (2007). Impaired emotion perception in schizophrenia: a differential deficit. Psychiatry Research, 149(1), 279-284. doi:10.1016/j. psychres.2004.09.011.

57.

Krolak-Salmon, P., Fischer, C., Vighetto, A., & Mauguière, F. (2001). Processing of facial emotional expression: spatio-temporal data as assessed by scalp event-related potentials. European Journal of Neuroscience, 13, 987-994. doi:10.1046/j.0953-816x.2001.01454.x.

58.

Lee, S. H., Kim, E. Y., Kim, S., & Bae, S. M. (2010). Event-related potential patterns and gender effects underlying facial affect processing in schizophrenia patients. Neuroscience Research, 67, 172-180. doi:10.1016/j.neures. 2010.03.001.

59.

Leppänen, J. M., & Hietanen, J. K. (2004). Positive facial expressions are recognized faster than negative facial expressions, but why? Psychological Research, 69, 22-29. doi:10. 1016/j.psychres.2004.05.020.

60.

Lin, H. F., Liu, Y. L., Liu, C. M., Hung, S. I., Hwu, H. G., & Chen, W. J. (2005). Neuregulin 1 gene and variations in perceptual aberration of schizotypal personality in adolescents. Psychological Medicine, 35(11), 1589-1598. doi:10.1017/S0033291705005957.

61.

Mahon, P. B., Eldridge, H., Crocker, B., Notes, L., Gindes, H., Postell, E., King, S., Potash, J. B., Ratnanather, J. T., & Barta, P. E. (2012). An MRI study of amygdala in schizophrenia and psychotic bipolar disorder. Schizophrenia Research, 138(2), 188-191. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2012.04.005

62.

Marinkovic, K., & Halgren, E. (1998). Human brain potentials related to the emotional expression, repetition, and gender of faces. Psychobiology, 26, 348-356.

63.

Matsumoto, D., & Ekman, P. (1988). Japanese and caucasian facial expressions of emotion and neutral faces (JACFEE and JACNeuF). San Francisco: Human Interaction Laboratory, University of California.

64.

Mikhailova, E. S., Vladimirova, T. V., Iznak, A. F., Tsusulkovskaya, E. J., & Sushko, N. V. (1996). Abnormal recognition of facial expression of emotions in depressed patients with major depression disorder and schizotypal personality disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 40(8), 697-705. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0006- 3223(96)00032-7.

65.

Morris J. S., Frith C. D., Perrett D. I., Rowland D., Young A. W., Calder A. J., & Dolan R. J. (1996). A differential neural response in the human amygdala to fearful and happy facial expressions. Nature, 383, 812-815. doi:10. 1038/383812a0.

66.

Neath, K., & Itier, R. (2013). Which feature is fixated modulates the N170 regardless of facial expression. Journal of Vision, 13(9), 169-169. doi:10.1167/13.9.169.

67.

Onitsuka, T., Shenton, M. E., Kasai, K., Nestor, P. G., Toner, S. K., Kikinis, R., & McCarley, R. W. (2003). Fusiform gyrus volume reduction and facial recognition in chronic schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60(4), 349-355. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.60.4.349.

68.

Onitsuka, T., Niznikiewicz, M. A., Spencer, K.M., Frumin, M., Kuroki, N., Lucia, L. C., Shenton, M. E., & McCarley, R. W. (2006). Functional and structural deficits in brain regions subserving face perception in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163(3), 455-462. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.3. 455..

69.

Poole, J. H., Tobias, F. C., & Vinogradov, S. (2000). The functional relevance of affect recognition errors in schizophrenia. Journal of International Neuropsychological Society, 6, 649- 658.

70.

Raine, A. (1991). The SPQ: a scale for the assessment of schizotypal personality based on DSM-III-R criteria. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 17(4), 555-564.

71.

Raine, A., Reynolds, C., Lencz, T., Scerbo, A., Triphon, N., & Kim, D. (1994). Cognitive- perceptual, interpersonal, and disorganized features of schizotypal personality. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 20(1), 191-201.

72.

Raine, A., Phil, D., & Benishay, D. (1995). The SPQ-B: a brief screening instrument for schizotypal personality disorder. Journal of Personality Disorders, 9(4), 346-355. doi:10. 1521/pedi.1995.9.4.346.

73.

Rapoport, J. L., Addington, A. M., & Frangou, S. (2005). The neurodevelopmental model of schizophrenia: update 2005. Molecular Psychiatry, 10(5), 434-449. doi:10.1038/sj.mp.4001642.

74.

Rellecke, J., Sommer, W., & Schacht, A. (2013). Emotion effects on the N170: a question of reference?. Brain Topography, 26(1), 62-71. doi: 10.1007/s10548-012-0261-y.

75.

Sadeh, B., Podlipsky, I., Zhdanov, A., & Yovel, G. (2010). Event‐related potential and functional MRI measures of face‐selectivity are highly correlated: A simultaneous ERP‐fMRI investigation. Human Brain Mapping, 31(10), 1490-1501. doi: 10.1002/hbm.20952.

76.

Said, C., Todorov A., & Sebe, N. (2009). Structural resemblanc to emotional expressions predicts evaluation of emotionally neutral faces. Emotion, 9(2), 260-264. doi:10.1037/ a0014681.

77.

Sato, W., Kochiyama, T., Yoshikawa, S., & Matsumura, M. (2001). Emotional expression boosts early visual processing of the face: ERP recording and its decomposition by independent component analysis. Neuroreport, 12, 709-714.

78.

Schneider, F., Gur, R. C., Gur, R. E., & Shtasel, D. L. (1995). Emotional processing in schizophrenia: neurobehavioral probes in relation to psychopathology. Schizophrenia Research, 17(1), 67-75. doi:10.1016/0920-9964 (95)00031-G.

79.

Schwartz, B. L., Marvel, C. L., Drapalski, A., Rosse, R. B., & Deutsch, S. I. (2002). Configural processing in face recognition in schizophrenia. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 7(1), 15-39. doi:10.1080/13546800143000113.

80.

Shibata, T., Nishijo, H., Tamura, R., Miyamoto, K., Eifuku, S., Endo, S., & Ono, T. (2002). Generators of visual evoked potentials for faces and eyes in the human brain as determined by dipole localization. Brain Topography, 15(1), 51-63. doi:10.1023/A:1019944607316.

81.

Siever, L. J., & Davis, K. L. (2004). The pathophysiology of schizophrenia disorders: perspectives from the spectrum. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161(3), 398-413. doi:10. 1001/archpsyc.1990.01810140081011.

82.

Silver, H., Bilker, W., & Goodman, C. (2009). Impaired recognition of happy, sad and neutral expressions in schizophrenia is emotion, but not valence, specific and context dependent. Psychiatry Research, 169(2), 101-106. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2008.11.017.

83.

Silverstein, S. M. (1989). Agreement between a short-form and full scope as a function of the correlation between them. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 45, 929-931.

84.

Streit, M., Ioannides, A. A., Liu, L., Wolwer, W., Dammers, J., Gross, J., Gaebel, W., & Müller-Gärtner, H. W. (1999). Neurophysiological correlates of the recognition of facial expressions of emotion as revealed by magnetoencephalography. Cognitive Brain Research, 7(4), 481-491. doi:10.1016/S0926- 6410(98)00048-2.

85.

Streit, M., Wölwer, W., Brinkmeyer, J., Ihl, R., & Gaebel, W. (2001). EEG-correlates of facial affect recognition and categorisation of blurred faces in schizophrenic patients and healthy volunteers. Schizophrenia Research, 49(1), 145- 155. doi:10.1016/S0920-9964(00)00041-4.

86.

Tanaka, J. W., Kiefer, M., & Bukach, C. M. (2004). A holistic account of the own-race effect in face recognition: evidence from a cross-cultural study. Cognition, 93(1), B1-B9. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2003.09.011.

87.

Taylor, S. F., Kang, J., Brege, I. S., Tso, I. F., Hosanagar, A., & Johnson, T. D. (2012). Meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies of emotion perception and experience in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 71(2), 136-145. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.09.007.

88.

Tucker, D. M. (1993). Spatial sampling of head electrical fields: the geodesic sensor net. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 87(3), 154-163. doi:10.1016/0013-4694(93) 90121-B.

89.

Turetsky, B. I., Kohler, C. G., Indersmitten, T., Bhati, M. T., Charbonnier, D., & Gur, R, C. (2007) Facial emotion recognition in schizophrenia: when and why dose it go awry? Schizophrenia Research, 94, 253-263. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2007.05.001.

90.

Ueno, T., Morita, K., Shoji, Y., Yamamoto, M., Yamamoto, H., & Maeda, H. (2004). Recognition of facial expression and visual P300 in schizophrenic patients: differences between paranoid type patients and non paranoid patients. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 58(6), 585-592. doi:10.1111/j. 1440-1819.2004.01307.x.

91.

Walther, S., Federspiel, A., Horn, H., Bianchi, P., Wiest, R., Wirth, M., & Müller, T. J. (2009). Encoding deficit during face processing within the right fusiform face area in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 172(3), 184-191. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns. 2008.07.009.

92.

Whittaker, J. F., Deakin, J. F. W., & Tomenson, B. (2001). Face processing in schizophrenia: defining the deficit. Psychological Medicine, 31(3), 499-508. doi:10.1017/S0033291701003701.

93.

Williams, L. M., Das, P., Harris, A. W. F., Liddell, B. B., Brammer, M. J., Olivieri, G., Skerrett, D., Phillips, M. L., David, A. S., Peduto, A., & Gordon, E. (2004). Dysregulation of arousal and amygdala- prefrontal systems in paranoid schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161(3), 480-489. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.161.3.480.

94.

Williams, L. M., Palmer, D., Liddell, B. J., Song, L., & Gordon, E. (2006). The ‘when’ and ‘where’ of perceiving signals of threat versus non-threat. Neuroimage, 31(1), 458-467. doi:10. 1016/j.neuroimage.2005.12.009

95.

Williams, B. T., Henry, J. D., & Green, M. J. (2007). Facial affect recognition and schizotypy. Early Intervention in Psychiatry, 1(2), 177-182. doi:10.1111/j.1751-7893.2007.00023.x.

96.

Wölwer, W., Binkmeyer, J., Stroth, S., Streit, M., Bechdolf, A., Ruhrmann, S., Wagner, M., & Gaebel, W. (2012). Neurophysiological correlates of impaired facial affect recognition in individuals at risk for schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 38(5), 1021-1029. doi:10. 1093/schbul/sbr013.

97.

Wynn, J. K., Lee, J., Horan, W. P., & Green, M. F. (2008). Using event related potentials to explore stages of facial affect recognition deficits in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 34(4), 679-687. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbn047.

The Korean Journal of Cognitive and Biological Psychology