본 연구의 목적은 외상후 스트레스 증상을 경험하는 대학생들의 부정적 정서(불안 및 우울)와 자기의 암묵적 연합을 알아보는 것이었다. 61명의 참가자들(남 16명, 여 45명)은 한국판 사건 충격척도의 점수에 따라 두 집단, 즉 외상군과 통제군으로 분류되었다. 정서 단어와 얼굴표정 사진을 사용한 암묵연합검사로 측정한 두 집단의 자동적 자기-불안 및 자기-우울이 비교되었다. 결과에 따르면, 명시적 차원의 경우 인지 및 우울 증상에서 집단 간 차이가 유의하지 않았으나, 암묵적 차원의 경우 외상군은 통제군에 비해 단어 조건에서 자기-불안 연합이 더 강화되고 사진 조건에서는 더 강한 자기-불안과 자기-우울 연합을 보여주었다. 이러한 결과는 외상 경험이 자동적, 암묵적 과정의 자기 개념에 영향을 줄 가능성을 시사한다. 본 연구의 한계점과 후속 연구를 위한 제언이 논의되었다.
The purpose of this study was to examine implicit associations of negative emotion (i.e. anxiety and depression) and self among a college students having experienced posttraumatic stress symptoms. The participants were 61 college students(male 16, female 45). They were classified into two groups, trauma group(n=35) and control group(n=26) according to scores of Korean version of Impact of Events Scale-Revised. Two groups were compared with regard to automatic self-anxious and self-depressive associations measured with the Implicit Association Test using both words and facial expression pictures, respectively. As results, trauma group showed more enhanced self-anxious association in the words conditions, and stronger self-anxious and self-depressive associations in the pictures conditions than control group, whereas there were no significant differences between two groups in explicit cognition and depression. These results suggest that traumatic experiences could influence self-concepts in the automatic process. Limitations of the current study and suggestions for future research were discussed.
김세건, 최윤경, 윤혜영, 이재호(2016). 얼굴 표정의 기본 정서 차원에 대한 기초 연구. 한국심리학회 연차학술대회 자료집, 228.
안제용, 서은란, 임경희, 신재현, 김정범 (2013). 한국어판 우울증 선별도구(Patient Health Questionnaire-9, PHQ-9)의 표준화 연구. 생물치료정신의학, 19(1), 47-56.
은헌정, 권태완, 이선미, 김태형, 최말례, 조수진 (2005). 한국판 사건충격척도 수정판의 신뢰도 및 타당도 연구. 신경정신의학, 44 (3), 303-310.
조용래 (2012). 한국판 외상 후 인지 검사의 요인구조와 수렴 및 변별타당도: 외상경험 대학생들을 대상으로. 인지행동치료, 12 (3), 369-391.
최수진 (2014). 사회불안성향자의 자존감 불안정성. 계명대학교 대학원 석사학위 청구논문.
최현정, 이훈진 (2016). 감각기반표상 수준에 따른 복합 외상 생존자의 개념자기 기억. 한국심리학회지: 임상심리 연구와 실제, 2, 1-17.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM). Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association.
Anders, S. L., Frazier, P. A., & Shallcross, S. L. (2012). Prevalence and effects of life event exposure among undergraduate and community college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59, 449-457.
Banaji, M. R., & Prentice, D. A. (1994). The self in social contexts. In L. Porter & M. Rosenzweig (Eds.), Annual review of psychology, Vol. 45(pp. 297-332). Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews.
Bargh, J. A. (1994). The four horsemen of automaticity: Awareness, intention, efficiency, and control in social cognition. In R. S. Wyer, Jr., & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition, Vol. 1(pp. 1-4). Hillsdale, NJ, England: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Baumeister, R. F. (1998). The self. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology(pp. 680-740). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Berntsen, D. (2009). Involuntary autobiographical memories: An introduction to the unbidden past. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Breiter, H. C., Etcoff, N. L., Whalen, P. J., Kennedy, W. A., Rauch, S. L., Buckner, R. L., ... & Rose, B. R. (1996). Response and habituation of the human amygdala during visual processing of facial expression. Neuron, 17, 875-887.
Bremner, J. D. (2006). Traumatic stress: Effects on the brain. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 8, 445-461.
Brewin, C. R. (2011). The nature and significance of memory disturbance in posttraumatic stress disorder. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 7, 203-227.
Brewin, C. R. (2014). Episodic memory, perceptual memory, and their interaction: Foundations for a theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 69-97. doi:10.1037/ a0033722
Brewin, C. R., & Holmes, E. A. (2003). Psychological theories of posttraumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychology Review, 23, 339- 376.
Brewin, C. R., Dalgleish, T., & Joseph, S. (1996). A dual representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Review, 103(4), 670 -686.
Brown, A., Kouri, N., Joscelyne, A., Marmar, C., & Bryant, R. (2015). Experimentally examining the role of self-identity and autobiographical memory in posttraumatic stress disorder. In L. Watson & D. Berntsen (Eds.), Clinical perspectives on autobiographical memory(pp. 316-334). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Cohen, J. (1977). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Conway, M. A. (2005). Memory and the self. Journal of Memory and Language, 53, 594–628.
Conway, M. A., & Pleydell-Pearce, C. W. (2000). The construction of autobiographical memories in the self-memory system. Psychological Review, 107, 261-288.
Dalgleish, T. (2004). Cognitive approaches to posttraumatic stress disorder: The evolution of multirepresentational theorizing. Psychological Bulletin, 130(2), 228-260.
Dunmore, E., Clark, D. M., & Ehlers, A. (2001). A prospective investigation of the role of cognitive factors in persistent posttraumatic stress disorder(PTSD) after physical or sexual assault. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 1063-1084.
Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 319-345.
Engelhard, I. M., Huijding, J., van den Hout, M. A., & de Jong, P. J. (2007). Vulnerability associations and symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder in soldiers deployed to Iraq. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45(10), 2317-2325.
Fazio, R. H., & Olson, M. A. (2003). Implicit measures in social cognition research: Their meaning and use. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 297-327.
Fazio, R. H., Sanbonmatsu. D. M., Powell, M. C., & Kardes F. R. (1986). On the automatic activation of attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 229-238.
Foa, E. B., & Kozak, M. J. (1986). Emotional processing of fear: Exposure to corrective information. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 20-35.
Foa, E. B., Ehlers, A., Clark, D. M., Tolin, D. F., & Orsillo, S. M. (1999). The Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory (PTCI): Development and validation. Psychological Assessment, 11, 303-314.
Glashouwer, K., & De Jong, P. J. (2010). Disorder-specific automatic self-associations in anxiety and depression: Results of the Netherlands study of depression and anxiety. Psychological Medicine, 40, 1101-1111.
Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., & Solomon, S. (1986). The causes and consequences of a need for self-esteem: A terror management theory. In R. F. Baumeister (Ed.), Public self and private self (pp. 189-212). New York: Springer-Verlag.
Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102, 4-27.
Greenwald, A. G., & Farnham, S. D. (2000). Using the Implicit Association Test to measure self-esteem and self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 1022-1038.
Greenwald, A. G., Banaji, M. R., Rudman, L. A., Farnham, S. D., Nosek, B. A., & Mellott, D. S. (2002). A unified theory of implicit attitudes, stereotypes, self-esteem, and self- concept. Psychological Review, 109, 3-25.
Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464-1480.
Greenwald, A. G., Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2003). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: I. An improved scoring algorithm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 197-216.
Haeffel, G. J., Abramson,L. Y., Brazy, P. C., Shah, J. Y., Teachman, B. A., & Nosek, B. A. (2007). Explicit and implicit cognition: A preliminary test of a dual-process theory of cognitive vulnerability to depression. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 1155-1167.
Horowitz, M. J. (1986). Stress-response syndromes: A review of posttraumatic and adjustment disorders. Psychiatric Services, 37, 241-249.
Janoff-Bulman, R. (1989). Assumptive worlds and the stress of traumatic events: Applications of the schema construct. Social Cognition, 7, 113-136.
Jelinek, L., Randjbar, S., Seifert, D., Kellner, M., & Moritz, S. (2009). The organization of autobiographical and nonautobiographical memory in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 288-298.
Kira, I. A., Lewandowski, L., Templin, T., Ramaswamy, V., Ozkan, B., & Mohanesh, J. (2008). Measuring cumulative trauma dose, types, and profiles using a development-based taxonomy of traumas. Traumatology, 14, 62-87.
Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. (2001). The PHQ-9: Validity of a brief depression severity measure. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 16, 606-613.
Lindgren, K., Kaysen, D., Werntz, A., Gasser, M., & Teachman, B. (2013). Wounds that can’t be seen: Implicit trauma associations predict posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 44, 368-375.
Macrae, C. N., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2000). Social cognition: Thinking categorically about others. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 93-120.
Marks, I. M. (1986). Behavioural psychotherapy: Maudsley pocket book of clinical management. Bristol, England: Wright/IOP Publishing.
McAdams, D. P. (1996). Personality, modernity, and the storied self: A contemporary framework for studying persons. Psychological Inquiry, 7, 295-321.
McNally, R. J. (1995). Automaticity and the anxiety disorders. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 747-754.
Mundt, J. C., Marks, I. M., Shear, M. K., & Greist, J. M. (2002). The Work and Social Adjustment Scale: A simple measure of impairment in functioning. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 180, 461-464.
Nosek, B. A. (2007). Implicit-explicit relations. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 65-69.
Nosek, B. A., Hawkins, C. B., & Frazier, R. S. (2012). Implicit social cognition. In S. Fiske & C. N. Macrae (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition(pp. 31-53). New York: Sage.
Ouimet, A. J., Gawronski, B., & Dozois, D. J. (2009). Cognitive vulnerability to anxiety: A review and an integrative model. Clinical Psychology Review, 29, 459-470.
Reed, R., McGrath, R. E., & Armeli, S. (2011). Prediction of sexual trauma via disruption of sex-aggression associations. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 24, 78-84.
Rusch, N., Lieb, K., Gottler, I., Hermann, C., Schramm, E., Richter, H., ... & Bohus, M. (2007). Shame and implicit self-concept in women with borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 500-508.
Smith, E. R., & DeCoster, J. (2000). Dual process models in social and cognitive psychology: Conceptual integration and links to underlying memory systems. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4, 108-131.
Sutherland, K., & Bryant, R. A. (2008). Autobiographical memory and the self-memory system in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22, 555-560.
Swan, W., Chang-Schneider, C., & McClarity, K. (2007). Do people’s self-views matter?: Self-concept and self-esteem in everyday life. American Psychologist, 62, 84-94.
Tanner, R. J., Stopa, L., & De Houwer, J. (2006). Implicit views of the self in social anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 1397-1409.
Teachman, B. A., Joormann, J., Steinman, S. A., & Gotlib, I. H. (2012). Automaticity in anxiety disorders and major depressive disorder. Clinical Psychology Review, 32(6), 575- 603.
van Harmelen, A. L., De Jong, P. J., Glashouwer, K. A., Spinhoven, P., Penninx, B. W., & Elzinga, B. M. (2010). Childhood abuse and negative explicit and automatic self-associations: The cognitive scars of emotional maltreatment. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48, 486-494.
Walsh, K., McLaughlin, K. A., Hamilton, A., & Keyes, K. M. (2017). Trauma exposure, incident psychiatric disorders, and disorder transitions in a longitudinal population representative sample. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 92, 212-218.
Weiss, D. S., & Marmar, C. R. (1997). The Impact of Event Scale-Revised. In J. P. Wilson & T. M. Keane (Eds.), Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD(pp. 399-411). New York, NY, US: Guilford Press.