The purpose of this study is to verify the reliability and validity of the SD4 (Short Dark Tetrad) scale, which measures ‘socially aversive personalities' in a domestic sample, and to confirm its applicability in Korea. socially aversive personalities refers to the dark personality that does not show immediate clinical impairment, but is potentially dysfunctional and includes destructive behavioral manifestations. Measurement of the 'dark' aspect of this personality has been carried out in various contexts, from early non-clinical scenes to clinical scenes showing pathological features. In Study 1, the SD4 scale was translated into Korean for a domestic sample and the statistical properties of SD4 were checked by performing exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. In Study 2, the Korean version of the SD4 scale confirmed in Study 1 was compared with those measuring related concepts, and the validity of the scale was verified and reliability was confirmed. As a result of the study, in Study 1, although there were variations in some items by factor, the same four factors (Machiavellianism, narcissism, psychopathy, sadism) could be maintained as the original scale, and the fit of the measurement model was found to be stable. In Study 2, convergence and discriminatory validity could be confirmed between the Korean version of SD4 and the scale measuring related concepts. In addition, it was confirmed that the scale was consistent and reliable in terms of internal fit, half-reliability, and test-retest reliability. Finally, the significance and limitations of this study were discussed and further studies were suggested.
김정란 (1999). 대학생의 이성교제 중 폭력과 대처행동. 대한가정학회지, 37(8), 73-90.
권석만, 서수균 (2002). 한국판 공격성 질문지의 타당화연구. Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 21(2), 487-501.
박성희 (1994). 공감, 공감적 이해. 서울:원미사.
박주화, 조광수 (2014). 결과가 나쁘면 의도도 나쁘다:한국인의 의도 및 의도성 판단. 한국심리학회지: 인지 및 생물, 26(4), 317-341.
박종철, 오현주, 이나희, 손하림, 이동귀, 배병훈 (2021). 한국판 어두운 성격 3요소 단축형의 요인구조와 타당화 지표. 한국심리학회지: 산업 및 조직, 34(3), 511-539.
서원진, 이수민, 김미리혜, 김제중 (2018). 탐색적 요인분석 연구의 현황과 제언. 사회과학연구, 29(1), 177-193.
송원영 (2021). 디지털 성폭력 가해 경험자와 데이트 성폭력 가해 경험자의 성격 특성, 성관련 통념 및 성중독의 차이. 상담심리교육복지, 8(6), 41-55.
이석재 (1999). 강간통념척도의 개발과 타당도 검증. 한국심리학회지: 사회 및 성격, 13(2), 131-148.
이주원 (2021). 윌슨 성적 공상 질문지 타당화 연구. 차의과학대학교 임상상담심리대학원 석사학위논문.
Ali, F., Amorim, I. S., & Chamorro-Premuzic, T. (2009). Empathy deficits and trait emotional intelligence in psychopathy and Machiavellianism. Personality and individual differences, 47(7), 758-762.
Ali, F., & Chamorro-Premuzic, T. (2010). The dark side of love and life satisfaction: Associations with intimate relationships, psychopathy and Machiavellianism. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(2), 228-233.
Allport, G. W. (1937). Personality: A Psychological Interpretation. Oxford, England: Holt.
Andrew, J., Cooke, M., & Muncer, S. J. (2008). The relationship between empathy and Machiavellianism: An alternative to empathizing–systemizing theory. Personality and Individual Differences, 44(5), 1203-1211.
Arseneault, R., & Catano, V. (2019). An extension of the dark triad and five factor model to three Asian societies. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 22(4), 358-368.
Barber, N. (1998). Sex differences in disposition towards kin, security of adult attachment, and sociosexuality as a function of parental divorce. Evolution and Human Behavior, 19(2), 125-132.
Barnett, M. A., & Thompson, S. (1985). The role of perspective taking and empathy in children's Machiavellianism, prosocial behavior, and motive for helping. The journal of genetic psychology, 146(3), 295-305.
Bettison, T. M., Mahmut, M. K., & Stevenson, R. J. (2013). The relationship between psychopathy and olfactory tasks sensitive to orbitofrontal cortex function in a non-criminal student sample. Chemosensory Perception, 6(4), 198-210.
Blais, M. A., & Little, J. A. (2010). Toward an integrative study of narcissism. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment, 1(3), 197-199.
Blötner, C., Steinmayr, R., & Bergold, S. (2021). Malicious mind readers? A meta-analysis on Machiavellianism and cognitive and affective empathy. Personality and Individual Differences, 181, 1-13.
Boland, G. (2018). The Dark Tetrad and Rape Myth Acceptance. Honors Research Projects. University of Akron, USA.
Boon, J., & Sheridan, L. (Eds.). (2002). Stalking and psychosexual obsession: Psychological perspectives for prevention, policing and treatment (Vol. 6). Wiley-Blackwell.
Brown, T. A., Sautter, J. A., Littvay, L., Sautter, A. C., & Bearnes, B. (2010). Ethics and personality:Empathy and narcissism as moderators of ethical decision making in business students. Journal of Education for Business, 85(4), 203-208.
Büchel, C., Peters, J., Banaschewski, T., Bokde, A. L., Bromberg, U., Conrod, P. J., & Knutson, B. (2017). Blunted ventral striatal responses to anticipated rewards foreshadow problematic drug use in novelty-seeking adolescents. Nature communications, 8(1), 1-11.
Buckels, E. E., Jones, D. N., & Paulhus, D. L. (2013). Behavioral confirmation of everyday sadism. Psychological science, 24(11), 2201-2209.
Buckels, E. E., & Paulhus, D. L. (2013, March). Everyday sadism and the Dark Tetrad of personality. Poster presented at the 1st meeting of the Personality Psychology Foundation, Stellenbosch, South Africa.
Buckels, E. E., Trapnell, P. D., Andjelovic, T., &Paulhus, D. L. (2019). Internet trolling and everyday sadism: Parallel effects on pain perception and moral judgment. Journal of personality, 87(2), 328-340.
Burt, M. R. (1980). Cultural myths and supports for rape. Journal of personality and social psychology, 38(2), 217.
Buss, A. H., & Perry, M. (1992). The aggression questionnaire. Journal of personality and social psychology, 63(3), 452.
Campbell, W. K., & Foster, J. D. (2007). The self(pp. 115-138). New York: Psychology Press.
Carton, H., & Egan, V. (2017). The dark triad and intimate partner violence. Personality and Individual Differences, 105(1), 84-88.
Chester, D. S., DeWall, C. N., & Enjaian, B. (2019). Sadism and aggressive behavior: Inflicting pain to feel pleasure. Personality and social psychology bulletin, 45(8), 1252-1268.
Christie, R., & Geis, F. L. (1970). Studies in Machiavellianism. New York, NY: Academic Press.
Córdova, P., Delgado, J., & Fernández, A. M. (2018). Behavioral evidence of everday sadism in a novel sample of chilean students. Human Ethology Bulletin, 33(4), 49-60.
Corral, S., & Calvete, E. (2000). Machiavellianism:Dimensionality of the MACH–IV and its relation to self-monitoring in a Spanish sample. Spanish Journal of Psychology, 3(1), 3-13.
Craker, N., & March, E. (2016). The dark side of Facebook: The Dark Tetrad, negative social potency, and trolling behaviours. Personality and Individual Differences, 102, 79-84.
Crysel, L. C., Crosier, B. S., & Webster, G. D. (2013). The Dark Triad and risk behavior. Personality and individual differences, 54(1), 35-40.
Davis, M. H. (1980). A multidimensional approach to individual differences in empathy, University of Texas, Austin.
Den Hartog, D. N., & Belschak, F. D. (2012). Work engagement and Machiavellianism in the ethical leadership process. Journal of business ethics, 107(1), 35-47.
Duspara, B., & Greitemeyer, T. (2017). The impact of dark tetrad traits on political orientation and extremism: an analysis in the course of a presidential election. Heliyon, 3(10), e00425.
Egan, V., Hughes, N., & Palmer, E. J. (2015). Moral disengagement, the dark triad, and unethical consumer attitudes. Personality and Individual Differences, 76, 123-128.
Everitt, B. J., & Robbins, T. W. (2016). Drug addiction: updating actions to habits to compulsions ten years on. Annual Review of Psychololgy, 67(1), 23-50.
Furnham, A. (2010). The Elephant in the Boardroom:Researching derailed, incompetent and failed Leaders (pp. 3-33). Palgrave Macmillan, London.
Furnham, A., Richards, S. C., & Paulhus, D. L. (2013). The Dark Triad of personality: A 10 year review. Social and personality psychology compass, 7(3), 199-216.
Furnham, A., & Trickey, G. (2011). Sex differences in the dark side traits. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(4), 517-522.
Glenn, A. L., Kurzban, R., & Raine, A. (2011). Evolutionary theory and psychopathy. Aggression and violent behavior, 16(5), 371-380.
Golbabaei, S., Barati, M., Haromi, M. E., Ghazazani, N., & Borhani, K. (2022). Development and construct validation of a short form of the interpersonal reactivity index in Iranian community. Current Psychology, 1-13.
Hare, R. D. (1980). A research scale for the assessment of psychopathy in criminal populations. P ersonality and individual differences, 1(2), 111-119.
Hare, R. D. (1983). Without conscience: The disturbing world of the psychopaths among us. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
Harms, P. D., Spain, S., & Hannah, S. (2011). Leader development and the dark side of personality. Leadership Quarterly, 22(3), 495-509.
Heym, N., Firth, J. L., Kibowski, F., Sumich, A. L., Egan, V., & Bloxsom, C. (2019). Empathy at the heart of darkness: Empathy deficits that bind the Dark Triad and those that mediate indirect relational aggression. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10, 95-100.
Hogan, R., & Hogan, J. (1997). Hogan Development Survey manual. Tulsa, OK: Hogan Systems.
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoffcriteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis:Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural equation modeling: a multidisciplinary journal, 6(1), 1-55.
Jakobwitz, S., & Egan, V. (2006). The dark triad and normal personality traits. Personality and Individual differences, 40(2), 331-339.
Johnson, L. K., Plouffe, R. A., & Saklofske, D. H. (2019). Subclinical sadism and the Dark Triad:Should there be a “Dark Tetrad”? Journal of Individual Differences, 40(3), 127-133.
Jonason, P. K., Girgis, M., & Milne-Home, J. (2017). The exploitive mating strategy of the Dark Triad traits: Tests of rape-enabling attitudes. Archives of sexual behavior, 46(3), 697-706.
Jonason, P. K., & Kavanagh, P. (2010). The dark side of love: Love styles and the Dark Triad. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(6), 606-610.
Jonason, P. K., Koenig, B. L., & Tost, J. (2010). Living a fast life. Human Nature, 21(4), 428-442.
Jonason, P. K., & Krause, L. (2013). The emotional deficits associated with the Dark Triad traits:Cognitive empathy, affective empathy, and alexithymia. P ersonality and Individual Differences, 55(5), 532-537.
Jonason, P. K., Li, N. P., & Buss, D. M. (2010). The costs and benefits of the Dark Triad: Implications for mate poaching and mate retention tactics. Personality and individual differences, 48(4), 373-378.
Jonason, P. K., Li, N. P., Webster, G. D., & Schmitt, D. P. (2009). The dark triad: Facilitating a short ‐term mating strategy in men. European journal of personality, 23(1), 5-18.
Jonason, P. K., & Webster, G. D. (2010). The Dirty Dozen: A concise measure of the dark triad. Psychological Assessment, 22(2), 420-432.
Jones, D. N., & Figueredo, A. J. (2013). The core of darkness: Uncovering the heart of the Dark Triad. European Journal of Personality, 27(6), 521-531.
Jones, D. N., & Paulhus, D. L. (2010). Handbook of interpersonal psychology: Theory, research, assessment and therapeutic interventions (pp. 249-267). Canada : Wiley.
Jones, D. N., & Paulhus, D. L. (2014). Introducing the short dark triad (SD3) a brief measure of dark personality traits. Assessment, 21(1), 28-41.
Kaiser, R. B., & Hogan, R. (2007). Being there even when you are not: Leading through strategy, structures, and systems (pp. 173-194). UK:Elsevier.
Kajonius, P. J., & Björkman, T. (2020). Individuals with dark traits have the ability but not the disposition to empathize. Personality and Individual Differences, 155, .1-5.
Kashmiri, S., Nicol, C. D., & Arora, S. (2017). Me, myself, and I: influence of CEO narcissism on firms’ innovation strategy and the likelihood of product-harm crises. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 45(5), 633-656.
Keysers, C., & Gazzola, V. (2014). Dissociating the ability and propensity for empathy. Trends in cognitive sciences, 18(4), 163-166.
Kosson, D. S. (2009). Recent advances in psychopathy research. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 54(12), 787-790.
Kotov R., Gamez W., Schmidt F., & Watson D. (2010). Linking "big" personality traits to anxiety, depressive, and substance use disorders: a meta-analysis a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 136(5), 768-821.
Kotov, R., Krueger, R., Watson, D., Achenbach, T., Althoff, R., & Bagby, R. (2017). The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP): a dimensional alternative to traditional nosologies. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126(4), 454-477.
Kowalski, C. M., Di Pierro, R., Plouffe, R. A., Rogoza, R., & Saklofske, D. H. (2020). Enthusiastic acts of evil: The Assessment of Sadistic Personality in Polish and Italian populations. Journal of Personality Assessment, 102(6), 770-780.
Kowalski, R. M. (2001). Behaving badly: Aversive behaviors I interpersonal relationships. Washington, DC: APA press.
Lomax, R. (2013). Introduction to structural equation modeli, In Applied quantitative analysis in education and the social sciences (pp. 257-276). Routledge.
Lebreton, J. M., Binning, J. F., & Adorno, A. J. (2006). Subclinical psychopaths. In J. C. Thomas & D. Segal (Eds.), Comprehensive Handbook of Personality and Psychopathology (Vol.1, pp. 388-411). New York: Wiley.ng.
Lynam, D. R., & Widiger, T. A. (2001). Using the five-factor model to represent the DSM-IV personality disorders: An expert consensus approach. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110(3), 401-412.
MacCallum, R. C., & Austin, J. T. (2000). Applications of structural equation modeling in psychological research. Annual review of psychology, 51, 201-226.
Maples, J. L., Lamkin, J., & Miller, J. D. (2014). A test of two brief measures of the dark triad: The Dirty Dozen and the Short Dark Triad. Psychological Assessment, 26(1), 326-331.
Marcus, D. K., Fulton, J. J., & Edens, J. F. (2013). The two-factor model of psychopathic personality: evidence from the psychopathic personality inventory. Personality Disorders:Theory, Research, and Treatment, 4(1), 140-154.
Miller, J. D., Lynam, D. R., Widiger, T. A., & Leukefeld, C. (2001). Personality disorders as extreme variants of common personality dimensions: Can the five factor model adequately represent psychopathy? Journal of Personality, 69(2), 253-276.
Miller, L. (2012). Stalking: Patterns, motives, and intervention strategies. Aggression and violent behavior, 17(6), 495-506.
Mitchell, D. G., Colledge, E., Leonard, A., & Blair, R. J. R. (2002). Risky decisions and response reversal: is there evidence of orbitofrontal cortex dysfunction in psychopathic individuals? Neuropsychologia, 40(12), 2013-2022.
Moor, L., & Anderson, J. R. (2019). A systematic literature review of the relationship between dark personality traits and antisocial online behaviours. Personality and individual differences, 144, 40-55.
Moreira, D., Azeredo, A., & Barbosa, F. (2019). Neurobiological findings of the psychopathic personality in adults: one century of history. Aggression and violent behavior, 47, 137-159.
Morelli M, Urbini F, Bianchi D, Baiocco R, Cattelino E, Laghi F, Sorokowski P, Misiak M, Dziekan M, Hudson H, Marshall A, Nguyen T, Mark L, Kopecky K, Szotkowski R, Toplu Demirtaş E, Van Ouytsel J, Ponnet K, Walrave M, Zhu T, Chen Y, Zhao N, Liu X, Voiskounsky A, Bogacheva N, Ioannou M, Synnott J, Tzani-Pepelasi K, Balakrishnan V, Okumu M, Small E, Pavlova Nikolova S, Drouin M, Chirumbolo A. (2021). The Relationship between Dark Triad Personality Traits and Sexting Behaviors among Adolescents and Young Adults across 11 Countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 18(5), 1-25.
Mouilso, E. R., & Calhoun, K. S. (2013). The role of rape myth acceptance and psychopathy in sexual assault perpetration. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 22(2), 159-174.
Mulder, R. T. (2012). Cultural aspects of personality disorder. In T. A. Widiger (Ed.), Oxford handbook of personality disorders (pp. 260-274). New York: Oxford University Press.
Muris, P, Merckelback, H., Otgaar, H., & Meijer, E. (2017). The Malevolent Side of Human Nature: A meta-Analysis and Critical Review of the Literature on the Dark Triad (Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and Psychopathy). Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12(2), 183-204.
Murphy, B. A., Costello, T. H., Watts, A. L., Cheong, Y. F., Berg, J. M., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (2020). Strengths and weaknesses of two empathy measures: A comparison of the measurement precision, construct validity, and incremental validity of two multidimensional indices. Assessment, 27(2), 246-260.
Nell, V. (2006). Cruelty’s rewards: The gratifications of perpetrators and spectators. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 29(3), 211-224.
O’Boyle, E. H. Jr, Forsyth, D. R., Banks, G. C., &McDaniel, M. A. (2012). A meta-analysis of the Dark Triad and work behavior: A social exchange perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97(3), 557-579.
O'Meara, A., Davies, J., & Hammond, S. (2011). The psychometric properties and utility of the Short Sadistic Impulse Scale (SSIS). Psychological assessment, 23(2), 523-531.
Paal, T., & Bereczkei, T. (2007). Adult theory of mind, cooperation, Machiavellianism: The effect of mindreading on social relations. Personality and individual differences, 43(3), 541-551.
Pailing, A., Boon, J., & Egan, V. (2014). Personality, the Dark Triad and violence. Personality and Individual Differences, 67(C), 81-86.
Pajevic, M., Vukosavljevic-Gvozden, T., Stevanovic, N., & Neumann, C. S. (2018). The relationship between the Dark Tetrad and a two-dimensional view of empathy. Personality and Individual Differences, 123, 125-130.
Patrick, C. J. (1994). Emotion and psychopathy:Startling new insights. Psychophysiology, 31(4), 319-330.
Patrick, C. J., Hicks, B. M., Krueger, R. F., & Lang, A. R. (2005). Relations between psychopathy facets and externalizing in a criminal offender sample. Journal of personality disorders, 19(4), 339-356.
Paulhus, D. L. (1998). Interpersonal and intrapsychic adaptiveness of trait self-enhancement: A mixed blessing? Journal of personality and social psychology, 74(5), 1197-1208.
Paulhus, D. L. (2014). Toward a taxonomy of dark personalities. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(6), 421-426.
Paulhus, D. L., Buckels, E. E., Trapnell, P. D., &Jones, D. N. (2021). Screening for dark personalities: The Short Dark Tetrad (SD4). European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 37(3), 208-222.
Paulhus, D. L., & Jones, D. N. (2015). Measures of dark personalities. In Measures of personality and social psychological constructs (pp. 562-594). Academic Press.
Paulhus, D. L., & Williams, K. M. (2002). The dark triad of personality: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. Journal of research in personality, 36(6), 556-563.
Pfattheicher, S., Keller, J., & Knezevic, G. (2019). Destroying things for pleasure: On the relation of sadism and vandalism. Personality and Individual Differences, 140, 52-56.
Pina, A., Holland, J., & James, M. (2017). The malevolent side of revenge porn proclivity: Dark personality traits and sexist ideology. International Journal of Technoethics, 8(1), 30-43.
Plouffe, R. A., Saklofske, D. H., & Smith, M. M. (2017). The assessment of sadistic personality:Preliminary psychometric evidence for a new measure. Personality and Individual Differences 104, 166-171.
Raskin, R., & Hall, C. S. (1979). A narcissistic personality inventory. Psychological Reports, 45(2), 590.
Rosenthal, R. (1991). Meta-analytic pro cedures for social research. NewburyPark, CA: Sage.
Russell, T. D., & King, A. R. (2016). Anxious, hostile, and sadistic: Maternal attachment and everyday sadism predict hostile masculine beliefs and male sexual violence. Personality and Individual Differences, 99(C), 340-345.
Sanchez-Ruiz, M. J., El Ahmad, P., Karam, M., & Saliba, M. A. (2021). Rape myth acceptance in Lebanon: the role of sexual assault experience/familiarity, sexism, honor beliefs, and the Dark Triad. Personality and individual differences, 170, 1-6.
Sanjeev, M. A., Sehrawat, A., & Santhosh Kumar, P. K. (2019). iPhone as a proxy indicator of adaptive narcissism: An empirical investigation. Psychology & Marketing, 36(10), 895-904.
Smoker, M., & March, E. (2017). Predicting perpetration of intimate partner cyberstalking:Gender and the Dark Tetrad. Computers in Human Behavior, 72(C), 390-396.
Southard, A. C., Noser, A. E., Pollock, N. C., Mercer, S. H., & Zeigler-Hill, V. (2015). The interpersonal nature of dark personality features. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 34(7), 555-586.
Storey, J. E., Hart, S. D., Meloy, J. R., & Reavis, J. A. (2009). Psychopathy and stalking. Law and Human Behavior, 33(3), 237-246.
Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Boney-McCoy, S. U. E., & Sugarman, D. B. (1996). The revised conflict tactics scales (CTS2) development and preliminary psychometric data. Journal of family issues, 17(3), 283-316.
Tucker, L. R., & Lewis, C. (1973). A reliability coefficient for maximum likelihood factor analysis. Psychometrika, 38(1), 1-10.
Van Geel, M., Goemans, A., Toprak, F., & Vedder, P. (2017). Which personality traits are related to traditional bullying and cyberbullying? A study with the Big Five, Dark Triad and sadism. Personality and Individual Differences, 106(C), 231-235.
Wastell, C., & Booth, A. (2003). Machiavellianism: An alexithymic perspective. Journal of social and clinical psychology, 22(6), 730-744.
Weiser, E. B. (2015). # Me: Narcissism and its facets as predictors of selfie-posting frequency. Personality and individual differences, 86(C), 477-481.
Westhead, J., & Egan, V. (2015). Untangling the concurrent influences of the Dark Triad, personality and mating effort on violence. Personality and Individual Differences, 86(C), 222-226.
Widiger, T. A., Lynam, D. R., Miller, J. D., &Oltmanns, T. F. (2012). Measures to assess maladaptive variants of the five-factor model. Journal of Personality Assessment, 94(5), 450-455.
Widiger, T. A., & Trull, T. J. (2007). Plate tectonics in the classification of personality disorder:Shifting to a dimensional model. American Psychologist, 62(2), 71-83